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s 

551 



THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



BULLETIN NO. 2. REVISED 



:!^A 




The District School. 



Seeds and Seed Selection. 

Suggestions for Industrial Contest. 

Types of Wheat. Oats, Barley and Corn. 

Rules for Judging. 

Suggestions for Rotating Crops. 

Cooking Contest and Suggestions. 

Sewing Contest and Suggestions. 

Fruit Growing Contest and Suggestions. 

Vegetable Growing Contest and Suggestions. 



God's gift to the New World's yreat need 
That helped to build the Nation's Strength, 
Up thro beginnings rode to lead 
A liigher race of men at length. — Thaxter. 



Co^ected s«4 





School Gardens near villages or in cities may properly consist largely of 
shrubs and flowers. 



"An ■unlessoned sirl 

Unskilled, Ur.pra.etieed, 

HaDpy in this, she is not yet so old 

But she maj learn." 

— Shakespeare. 



BULLETIN No. 2. REVISED 



RURAL 



SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



PREPARED BY C. P. BULL 



DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE 



THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



1907 

St. Anthony Park 

Minn. 



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DEC 



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FOREWORD 

"Here let us breathe, and happily institute 
A course of learning and ingenious studies." 
Taming of the Shrew. 

The successful introduction of the study of the elements of 
agriculture into the rural schools of Minnesota depends upon 
placing comprehensive studies before the superintendents, teachers 
and pupils of these institutions, and upon the intelligence with 
which they execute the plan of introduction. Rural School 
Bulletin No. i supplied the teachers with simple outlines of experi- 
ments that could be carried out in any rural school by the yoimg- 
est pupils, thus introducing the elementary studies in such a way 
as to make them both interesting and instructive. In accord v/ith 
the movement to introduce agriculture in our public schools, 
Rural School Bulletin No. 2 is ofifered as a text for teachers and 
pupils who are interested in the improvement of seed and crop 
conditions in Minnesota, It is thought best to include in the 
work only the common grains : wheat, oats, barley and corn, with 
an introductory chapter on seeds, their parts, germination, selec- 
tion, weight, classes, etc. Definite rules for score cards and 
judging are also included for the benefit of the teachers and 
judges of the contest. 

At the back of the outlines for the grains and corn is an appen- 
dix upon the subject of Field Alanagement and Crop Rotation. 
This is offered to the teachers as a guide to a general understand- 
ing of the subject of farming and handling of crops. Following 
this are suggestions for practical exercises, which if followed out 
will greatly increase the pupil's interest in his work and in the 
value of good seed. 

Upon the basis of these rules it is planned to have a contest 
in each county in the state. A plan for the 1907 state contest is 
herewith included. 

The contestants are to be pupils of the schools, both boys and 
girls or any other boy or girl in the state under 18 years of age. 



County contests may be planned as best suits the local condit.ons 
or the desires of those in charge. In connection with the state 
contest a "good seed" meeting will be held, at which time the 
prizes will be awarded and methods of growing the crops and car- 
ing for the seeds will be discussed. Other matters of interest in 
relation to rural scln:)ol aiTairs may also be brought up in these 
meetings. 

The original Rural School Bulletin No. 2 was published in 
connection with the seed contest for rural school pupils for 1906. 
This revised edition is more complete and includes barley as well 
as wheat, corn and oats, also a brief discussion of sewing, cook- 
ing, vegetable and fruit growing. It is published by the Minne- 
sota Experiment Station. The IVIinnesota Field Crop Breeders, 
as before, will provide judges for making the awards. 

All inquiries in regard to the contest should be addressed to 
The Farmers' Club, St. Anthony Park, St. Paul., Minn. 

For valuable suggestions and assistance in preparing this Bull- 
etin the writer is deepy indebted to Prof D. D. Mayne, Principal 
of the School of Agriculture ; Andrew Boss, Professor of Agri- 
culture and Animal Husbandry, and others of the Department 
of Agriculture. 

Miss Mary L. Bull, Assistant Instructor in Domestic Science. 
Mrs. Margaret J. Blair, Instructor in Domestic Art, and Le Roy 
Cady, Assistant in Florticulture, prepared the copy in cooking, 
sewing, and fruit and vegetable growing respectively. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Minnesota is an agricultural state. About one-half of the peo- 
ple are living in country districts, and of the total population 40.1 
per cent are engaged in agricultural pursuits. At the last census 
there were 154,659 farms. The average size of each farm is about 
169 acres. Of all the farm crops grown in Minnesota, wheat, oats, 
barley and corn are the most important. Wheat is grown on 35 



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Fig. 1. The chart contains 100 little squares. Each square represents one 
per cent. Therefore, the number of squares darkened in each corner shows 
the percentage or proportion of etch ci'op. as compared with the entire culti- 
vated area in the state. 



per cent (more than one-third~) of the improved land; oats on \2 
per cent (about one-eighth) ; barley on .048 per cent. Mess than 
one one-hundredth part), and corn on 8 per cent (about one- 
twelfth). These four crops form more than one-half of the total 
acreage of the improved farm lands of the state. The total 
amount of wheat, oats, barley and corn grown in Minnesota is 
small compared with rhe acreage. The average yields per acre 



for the state are: Wheat, 14.26 bushels, oats 33.5 bushels, barley 
27.3 bushels and corn 29.00 bushels per acre. These low yields 
are largely due to ini!)rooer care in selecting the grain used for 
seed. By the use of well-c-elected seed the yields can be very much 
increasd. The Minnesota Experiment Station has shown that by 
selecting the largest, plumpest, and heaviest seeds the yields can 




United K'tijdom-jafc- 



Note. — Comparative yields per 
States and the United Kiugdom. 



tTlinne'bota- i i^.^t tu 
United States- 13.5 tu 

e of wheat in .Miiiiit 



)ta. the I'nited 



be increased so that on good land, wheat will yield 25 bushels, 
oats 70 bushels, and corn 75 bushels. If this were done by ever\- 
farmer in the state the yearly income from wheat, oats, barley 
and corn in the state would be greatly increased with but very 
little extra expense. 



A SEED? 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE. 

THE SEED 

WHAT IS ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ \^ti\Q storehouse in which a tiny plant 
has a separate room and gets its nourishment or 
food from the material stored up in the other room, 
when the conditions for germination* are right. Usually the 
little plant lies along one side at the end of the seed. The stcred- 
up material fills all the rest of the space and is separated from 
the plantlet by a very thin wall. 

THE PARTS A seed has three distinct parts: (i) The little 

OF THE plant or germ (this germ in corn is often called 

SEED ^'^^ heart) ; (2) the stored-up food for the little 

plant; and (3) the seed coat which cover;- all 





A-St..,d ut. food. -B-SeedCal. C-G«'r,orL.tlIe +U.,l 

Fig. 2. Kernels of 1 wheat, 2 oats, and 3corn, cut through lengthwise to 
show the three parts of the seed : viz., A. the stored-up food ; B. the seed 
coat ; and C the germ. 

and protects the inner parts. All true seeds, whether large or 
small have these three parts, which may be seen with the naked 
eye if a grain of corn be cut lengthwise in two parts. Some 
seeds, such as oats, appear to have an extra covering, but these 
extra parts are only the parts of the flower or blossom which 
stay with the seed when it is ripe. 



♦Germination is the "sprouting" or " growing" of a seed. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CLASSES 
OF SEEDS. 



Nature ha^ divided seeds into two classes: viz., 
those where the stored-up food is in one part, 
Hke corn, and those where it is in two parts, like 
the bean. When the one-part seed, like corn, is planted the seed 
remains in the ground, while leaves are sent up through the soil 
to get air and sunlight. But when the two-part seeds are planted 
the seed coat is broken and the two parts are pushed to the sur- 
tace taking the place of leaves until regular leaves are formed. 
In both cases, however, the little plant gets its food largely from 
the stored-up material until the roots and leaves arc well de- 
veloped.'^ 




Fiu. :i. Shows seeds of 1 oats, 2 bean, 3 pea. 4 corn, and 5 wheat. After 
three days in a germinator. note that the bean is being pushed up at the end 
of the sprout while the other seeds are sending the sprouts up. 

JJ'H -iT IS (lermination — sometimes called sprouting — 

CFRMJX' 4TJn\ ? '^ ^^^ growing of the little plant in the seed 
when it is placed under certain conditions. 
These conditions are heat, air and moisture. The heat is neces- 
sary to make the stored-up food useful and to cause growth in 
the plantlet in the seed. Air, together with moisture and heat, 
causes a change in the .stored-up food. Air also permits the little 



*Teaeher — Germinate some corn and some beans to illustrate the above. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 4. Shows two plants resulting from good seed (outside) and two 
plants from poor seed (inside) ; also a plump and shrunken kernel of wheat. 
Note the relative extent of the root systems and the size of the little plants. 



to RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

plant to breathe. Ivloisture is needed to carry food substances 
and to give the plant what it needs. If any one or all of these 
three things are lacking, germination or growth will not take 
place. 

In a thoroughly ripe seed, stored away for the winter, the 
plantlet is dormant or asleep, and awakens into activity and 
growth when planted in the warm soil. When in spring germma- 
tion or sprouting takes place the food stored up in the seed is 
used by the plantlet to feed the first leaves and the roots. By 
the time the roots and leaves are well formed the stored-up food 
is all gone. The plantlet then draws its food from the soil and 
the air through the roots and leaves. Nearly all of the plant's 
food comes from the air. The ashes left after burning the straw 
or the wood are the only parts of the plant taken from the soil. 

CERMIM ^TIWC '^'^^^ germinating power is the strength and 
rapidity with which a seed sprouts and grows 
A great deal depends upon the germinating 
V p :^hhu^. power of a seed. Some seeds of the same kind 

may be slow to start and weak in growing while others may be 
quick and strong, or others may fail to germinate at all. Some 
kinds of seeds are much stronger and quicker than others ; for 
example wheat is quick to start and grows strong and steady while 
sorghum starts slowly and is weak when young. Therefore, 
more care must be used in plowing and harrowing and rolling the 
field in seeding, when the weaker seeds are to be used. There is 
also a great difference in seeds, of the same kind as between the 
large and small kernels of corn. The largest and plumpest seeds 
with a large germ always give the strongest and best plants. Upon 
the same ear of corn, for example, the germinating power of the 
middle kernels is much stronger than the tip and butt kernels. 
(See figure on subsequent page illustrating.) 

The age of the seed has much to do with the relative vitality 
or germinating power. Some seeds do not germinate after the 
first year, while others will keep their power of growth for several 
vears. Wild mustard will live in the soil for twenty years and 
then grow under favorable conditions. On the other hand wild 
oats will live only a vear or two. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICL'LTURE II 

FVIDFNCES OF There are certain outside appearances which 

more or less determine the vitahty of tlie 
LrhKMiJ\ A 1 Il\ Lr , 

seeds : 

rUvy hK ^J^J Age, as is seen by the dull condition 

of the seed coat and by the hardness of seed. Hard seeds are 

mostly well stored and ripe. Young, bright, shiny seeds are best ; 

(2) Shrunkenness, as is shown by the wrinkled seed coat, 
gives evidence that there is not enough plant food stored up and 
that the little plant is stunted. Its room is too small for it ; 

(3) Lack of luster and color indicate alternate wetting and 
drying and such seeds should never be used ; 

(4) Frozen condition, shown by a blistered, watery appear- 
ance of the seed coat, is often fatal to the germ ; 

(5) Bin-burned is shown by the dull, dark appearance of the 
entire seed. This is caused by too much moisture in the bin where 
the wheat is stored. Bin-burning kills the germ ; 

(6) Sprouted grain is shown by the presence of dried roots 
at the germ end of the seed. These will sometimes sprout again, 
but they cannot be relied upon. There are cases where seed bears 
every appearance of life and vigor but will not germinate. The 
only way to prove the power of growth of any grain is to test it. 

TF'\TTNr Every farmer should test all classes of seed 

cn/p ^^^^^ ^^ intends to plant. Why? Because he 

expects the seed to grow when planted and 
LrhKMiISAl 1J\ Gr j^g expects that the amount of seed grown will 
POWER. make the proper stand. If only part of the 

seed planted will grow, the yield of the crop will not be as large 
as it should be, and the work of planting the poor seed will be 
useless. 

HOW Take two c mmon plates and get two pieces of 

J, -pc-er cotton cloth a little larger than thei plates. Dip the 
cloths in warm water and spread one of them out 
on one of the plates. From the seed that is to be tested, take a 
handful and place on the table. Count out one hundred seeds 
just as they come from the edge of the pile. Do not try to make 



12 



RL'KAL SCHOOL A( -.RICL'LTL'RI-: 




Fij;. 5. A Seed tester consisting of two plates and two pieces of clotli. 
The seeds are placed between the cloths. The clotlis are kept wet. 



RL'RAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I3 

a selection. Scatter these lOO seeds upon the \vet cloth on the 
plate. Spread the other cloth over the seed and press it dowft 
closely. Then turn the other plate upside down on the plate with 
the seeds, leaving the corners of the cloths sticking out between 
the plates. This makes a complete little tester and is sufficient 
for all kinds of seeds. Place it where it will keep reasonably 
warm and keep the cloths moist by sprinkling with water two or 
three times a day if necessary. 

TA15LE FOR SHOWING THE METHOD OF RECORDING THE TEST OF SEED 
FOR GERMINATION. 

Name — Paul Jones. 
Date — March lo, 1906. 
Record test of Seeds. 
Number of seeds used 100. 

Number 
Wheat Germinated 

March 3 27 

March 4 ^7 

March 5 16 

March 6 5 

March 7 i 

Total 86 

Seeds not germinating 14 

Such a test is too slow. The grain should be bettei selected ; 
or, if it has been selected, more seed must be used to make up for 
the 14% that did not grow. In this way a good stand may be 
obtained. ^- - 

j^ About the third day, the counting may begin. 

Count carefully and keep a record of the number 

of seeds that have sprouted each day until the test is complete, 

or until no more seeds shows signs of life. .\ week is as long as 

this should take. 



14 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



FIGURING ''^<^1'1 ^'le counts of the dilicrent days together 

THE GERM I- '"'"^'^ ^^^'^ total number will be the per cent of the 

seed germinating. If 90 to 95 seeds grow the 

germmation is pretty good, but below QO the 

value of the grain for seed begins to be doubtful 

and another test should be made a little later to see if the grain 

is losing its power. A little more seed may then be added in 

sowing, to make up for the dead ones. If the germination is too 

low, new seed should be secured. If the seeds all sprout about 

the same time, it is a sign of uniform strength, but if a few sprout 

each day it shows that the vitality is injured in some way. 

SELECTING ^^^^'^ ciuality of seed as indicated by the color, the 
pn?? ^''^^' ^'■'^ plumpness, etc., is a great help in select- 
ing seed to improve our field crops. It has been 

PI ~l \'T I NG 

' ^hown that by running grain through a fanning 

mill a good selection can be made. In this way the heaviest seeds 

are obtained, and these always give better results than light seeds. 



I ♦♦If ft I • i 
«l f 11 ffif « 

Mil fit Ml 



Fi.i;-. (1. ShowiiiiT thf different desreos of pluminicss of barley seeds. 

In other words, the weight per bushel is a fairly correct index of 
the value of grain for seed purposes. Too much care cannot be 
taken in getting the best possil)le seed for planting. So much 
depends ujjon the quality of the seed that a farmer shoukl always 
get the best. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICLTLTLTRE 



15 



WEIGHT 

PER 

BUSHEL. 



All seeds have a definite weight per bushel. Some 
are very heavy while others are very light. For 
example, a bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds, while 
a bushel of oats weighs only ^2 pounds, and ji 




The weighing kettle i cliroiidronictrr i is used to (len-rniine the weight 
per bushel. The sacks indicate how the "seed grain" may be selected from 
the whole harvest. 

bushel of Kentuckey Blue Grass seed weighs 14 pounds. In 
order that the weights for the different seeds may be the r.ame 
in all parts of the state, the weight per bushel of all classes of 
seeds has been fixed by law. When a farmer sells his grain at 
the mill or elevator the number of bushels he has on his load is 
determined by the weight. For example : The farmer takes a 
load of wheat to the mill. The miller weighs the load and finds 
that it weighs 5.400 pounds. The farmer unloads the wheat and 
the miller weighs the wagon. It weighs 1,200 pounds. 

5,400 pounds equals weight of load. 

1,200 pounds equals weight of wagon. 

4,200 pounds equals weight of wheat. 

Wheat weighs 60 pounds per bushel. 4,200 divided by 60 
gives 70, or the number of bushels of wdieat. 

Thus it is easy to tell how many bushels he had on the load. 



i6 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTL'RE 



FANNING MILL SELECTION: 

A SECTION OF A FANNING MILL SHOWING ARRANGEMENTS OF 
SIEVES AND DIVIDING BOARDS. 




'■Sii>e-Shaki:" Mii.r, Fort Sp;rARATixG Seeh (thain. 

Screen No. 1 slmnld be just coarse enongh to let the grain through. It 
is used simply to run off sticl<s and straw. Board No. 2 carries the grain 
backward in the mill, so as to let it drop through the blast at one place. The 
light kernels are blown past tlie end of screen No. 3 the heavier kernels fall 
on screen No. .3. Board No. 2 may be moved forward or back wa'rd to throw 
a large or small per cent of grain on scr^^eu No. 3, as desired. Screen No. 3 
should be coarse enough to let the small kernels through onto screen No. 4. 
It is adjustable as to slant and may be moved forward or backward to regu- 
late the amount of grain it will catch. Screen No. 4 is fine enough to carry 
nearly all of the grain over into market grain. Any side shake mill may be 
fixed up in this way. Separation by weight cannot be made with the end 
shake mills, but the large kernels can be separated from the small ones in 
any proportion desired simply by using coarse or line screen in lower part 
of mill. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I7 

Weight per Bushel of some Common Seeds 

AND Amount to Sow per Acre 

Pounds 

Pounds of seed 

Per Bu. Per Acre 

Alfalfa 60 15 — 25 

Barley 48 96 — 120 

Beans 60 30 — 60 

Buckwheat 48 36 — 48 

Canada Field Peas 60 12c — 180 

Clover — red 60 4 — 12 

Clover — alsike 60 3 — 6 

Corn, shelled 56 8 

Corn, on the ear 72 10 — -15 

Emmer (Speltz) 40 100 

Flax 56 30 — 60 

Kentucky Blue Grass 14 42 

Oats 32 64 — 100 

Red Top (in chaff ) '14 30 — 42 

Red Top (solid seed) 42 4 — 10 

Timothy 45 8 — 12 

Wheat 60 60 — 90 

]\Iillet 48 24-36 

Hemp 50 

Potatoes 60 480 

Rye 56 70-84 

(Teacher: Have pupils figure the number of pecks or bushels to 
seed per acre.) 

CR -IDES ^^^ ld.\ys of Minnesota have provided different 
„ grades for the grains. Samples of these car loads 

are taken to the men who are hired to grade them. 

The grade these men give represent different qual- 
ities and are based upon the cotnparative quahty of the grains, 
and the weight per btishel. The price paid depends upon the 
grade. 



l8 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

TABLE OF SOAIE MARKET GRADES OF GRAIN AND 
WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL. 

No. I Hard spring wheat mu>t weigh at least 58 pounds. 

No. I Northern spring wheat must weigh at least 57 pounds. 

No. 2 Northern spring wheat must weigh at least 56 pounds. 

No. 3 spring wheat must weigh at least 54 pounds. 

No. 4 spring wheat must weigh at least 49 pounds. 

No. I white oats must weigh not less than 32 piiunds 

No. 2 white oats must weigh not less than 31 pounds. 

No. 3 white oats must weigh not less than 29 pounds. 

No. 4 wliite oats must weigh not less than 25 pounds. 

The grades of grain used for seed are not regulated by law. 
The seedsmen and others selHng seed offer certain brands of 
seed which are graded generally according to the germination of 
the seed. Each year may Ijring forth a somewhat dift'erent grade 
ot seed, according to the crop. It may Idc very poor one year and 
the next year it mav be the very Ix'st. Thtis it is not possible 
to make standard grades of seed grain and keep them ni use, but 
100 is taken as perfect and the seed graded accordingly. In 
buying seeds it is always advisable to btiy the best grade, even 
though it costs more. 

^ In order to tell if seed is good, a person must be 

accustomed, when looking at grain, to pick out the 
• particular points which go to make up good seed, 

and to tell how nearly they compare with what he considers per- 
fect for these points. He must also be able to give the most con- 
sideration to those points or characters which are of most im- 
portance. For example : Plumpness is of more importance than 
mere color. Plumpness, therefore, should have more influence 
than color in judging. A grain having the l:)est of color and yet 
not plump would not be worth one -third as much as one that was 
plump and well filled but having a liad color. In order to have 
the important points always in mind, they are made into a score 
card and given a certain comparati\'e value. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICL'LTURE 



19 



To aid in judging" the different kinds of seed 
grain a set of points (called a score card) is 
arranged to show the relative value of each 
point. One hundred ( 100) is taken as perfect 
for the sum of all points. It is noticed that each one has a cer- 



IV HAT 
THE SCORE 
CARD IS. 




Fig:. 9. Getting tlie weight per busliel with the testing kettle. When grad- 
ing grain for seed tlie weight per bushel should be taken. The heaviest is 
the best. 



tain number or part of the 100. This number represents the 
relative value of the point. Men who judge chickens often pay 



20 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

too much attention to the feathers. They give more attention in 
some cases to a certain mark of a feather than they do to the 
amount of meat there is or the number of eggs laid. But this 
is a mistake. The score cards should be arranged so as to give 
greatest vahie to the points that show the true value of the grain, 
or chicken, or horse, as the case may be. 

SCORE CARD FOR SEED WHEAT 

1. Weight per bushel 25 

2. Uniform and purit\' 10 

3- Color 15 

4. Plumpness 25 

5. Condition of bran (seed coat) 5 

6. Diseased or injured kernels 10 

(Market Condition) — ■ 



100 



RULES 
FOR 



In order to make the score card useful it is neces- 
sary to have a rigid set of rules to follow in giving 
the proper credit to the samples being judged. The 
J UVLrllMLr. score card is divided into several heads or points 
to be considered. These headings will differ somewhat accord- 
ing to the kind of crop to be judged. Wheat, for example, is 
quite different from corn and cannot be governed by the same 
rules. Each heading in the score card will have a separate rule, 
which should be followed very closely when judging a sample. 
In looking at the sample and passing upon any one point in the 
score card, all other points should be forgotten for the time. In 
other words, judge only the one point regardless of the others. 
See bulletins listed in back on this subject. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 21 



WHEAT 



HISTORY ^^^^^^ is one of the oldest crops grown. The 

people who lived in Egypt along the valley of the 

Nile River, more than five thousand years ago, 

. grew wheat, and it was used for food by the richer 

classes. The tombs in which many of these people were buried 

have been found to contain grains of wheat. From Egypt wheat 

was carried across the Mediterranean Sea to Greece, and from 

there to Rome. In the hands of the Romans wheat spread all 

over Europe, and was taken into England about two thousand 

years ago. 

Finally wheat was introduced into America. It has spread 
into every state and country of both North and South America. 
It is used so much for human food that it is often called "the 
staff of life." Wheat is nearly always the first crop to be grown 
in a new country, especially on our w^estern prairies and in west 
central Canada. 

In the United States, Minnesota stands third in the list as a 
wheat state. It produces more wheat annually than any other 
state except Kansas and North Dakota, and the largest flour mills 
in the world are located at Minneapolis on the Falls of St 
Anthony. One of these mills alone makes over 16,800 barrels 
of flour in a day's work of twenty-four hours. 

^„^„^^^„^„., Wheat belongs to the great family of grasses. 
It grows like most grasses, sendmg up several 
stalks from the planting of one seed. It requires planting every 
year if a crop is to be harvested. Plants which ripen their seed 
the same year they are planted are called annuals. 

The stems of a wheat plant often grow to be five feet high. 
They are hollow except at the joints. This gives lightness and 
elasticity to them so they will not break in the wind and storm. 
The number of joints in each stalk above ground is usually five — 
one just at the surface and four above. The space between the 
joints is greater near the top than at the bottom. 

The seed-bearing part of the plant is called a spike. It is made 



22 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




Fis. 1(1. Two wheat plnnts. Each JfiMm a single seed. Note the stems. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



23 



up of a zig-zag" stem upon which are grown small bunches of 
flowers. These are called spikelets. There are usually about 
nineteen of these spikelets on each stem, and they have from two 
to four seeds each. 





I 







^ % ^ i I $ %_ t 



e « t f f t ^ 



Fig. 11. Type keruels of wheat, also srinkiag smut-balls. 1. Emmer 
(Speltz.) in the liulls and tlie berries alone. 2, Macaroni wlieat. 3, Blue stem 
wheat. 4, Fife. 5, Smut-balls. 

The grain is usually held fast in the chaff when it is ripe, but 
it should be cut before it is too ripe and dry, as the grain shells 
easily afterward. The grains are a little longer than broad and 



24 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



have a crease on one side running' the entire length. They also 
have fine hairs at the top or end opposite the germ. The color of 
the grain is sometimes white and sometimes red, depending upon 
the variety grown. 



TYPES OF 
DIFFERENT 



There are several ditlerent types or kinds of 
wheat grown in the world. Not all of these 
types are grown in Minnesota. The types of 
IVHEAI. wheat are divided according to the looks of the 

spikes and the seeds. Those most common in ^Minnesota are 
as follows : 

The Common Bread Wheats, mostly grown in North Amer- 
ica. — In Minnesota the Fife and Blue-stem wheats are the com- 




- '-,'! 



\ wh/ 




Fig. 12. Types of wheat. 1. Bmmer (speltz). 
roni. 4. Fife. 5. Bearded common. 



-. Blue-.stem. 3. Maca- 



mon varieties of this class. Blue-stem yields better, but the 
quality of the grain is not so good as that of the Fife. Blue- 
stem is more successful in southern Minnesota than Fife. Fife 
is mostly used in the north. 

The Macaroni of Durum Wheat, mostly grown in the 
coimtries bordering- on the Mediterranean Sea. — It was recentlv 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE . 2~, 

brought into this country, and is rapidly spreading through the 
Northwest. It is not Hked by the millers. It does best upon the 
poor, sandy soils, where there is not much rainfall. It yields 
more per acre than the Fifes and Blue-stems, but is more diffi- 
cult to make into flour. 

Emmer* — This is a kind of wdieat that looks like barley and 
is often called "Speltz." Speltz is still another class or type of 
wheat, and is not grown in this country. The chafif of Emmet- 
holds the seed like oats and barley when threshed. 

In the United States Emmer is used only for food for live 
stock. 

Polish Wheat is popular in some parts of the world, but is npt 
much grown in this country. When grown it is useful only in 
gruels or as stock food. 

There are still other types of wheat, but they are so little 
grown that their importance is slight. 

There are also two classes of wheat — the winter wheat and 
the spring wheat. These look just alike, "but the winter varieties 
must be planted in the fall and remain over winter before they 
will produce seed, while the spring varieties are planted in the 
spring and produce seed the same year. These two classes — • 
winter and spring wheat — are found in nearly all of the types. 

Plow TO GROW WHEAT. 

_ Plowing for wheat should be done in the fall. Fall 

PLOWING. , . "^ ,, -1 ,1 , • 1 , 

plowmg opens the soil so that air and water can 

pass through it. The frost then breaks it up and makes it fine 

and more productive. If the plowing is left until spring the soil 

does not go through this treatment and is not so productive. 

Spring plowing should be shallow, as it is likely to make the 

soil too loose. 

^,,.,,,^ Harrowing should be done at iust the proper 

HARROn IhG . -r,'' ^ ... ^ , 1 . -11 

time. It a wet sou is not harrowed it will 

Itih ^UIL. form a hard crust on top or be lumpy. If left 

too long after plowing the soil dries out and the seeds do not get 



*It is not intended to have Emmer as one of tlie varieties in the 
growing contest. 



26 



RURAL SCHOOL Ai-R JCl"LTL"RE 



the moisture needed for germination. The seeds do not sprout 
evenly and the crop looks poor. Harrowing" is not intended for 
making the soil loose, but for compacting it. and making a fine, 
firm seed bed. Fall plowed land should not be harrowed until 
spring. Spring plowed land should be harrowed the same day as 
plowed and again before or just after ])lanting. 











Fig. 3^. A ut'H made shock will shed rain. 



PLAXriXG 
THE SEED. 



The best way to plant wheat is with a drill. This 
gets the seed buried at an even depth and places 



it in contact with moist soil. Farmers use from 
1-^4 to i-Jj bushels of seed per acre. The seed should be 
drilled as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. Many 
farmers who have many acres of grain to put in, begin before 
the soil is in the best condition. After the seed is all planted it 
is a good plan to harrow or roll the field just as the wheat is 
coming u]). This presses the soil about the roots of the little 
l)lants so they can get moisture easily. It also helps to keep the 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 27 

moisture in the soil. If the ground is wet it should not be rolled 
as it makes the surface too hard and dry. 

HARVESTING Wheat is usually cut just before the last of the 
WHEAT. green color is gone from the top of the stems 

and spikes. The grain should not be allowed to get dead ripe 




Fig. 14. A poorly made shock permits the rain to soali into the heads of 
the bundles and spoil the grain. A shock contains about one bushel of grain. 
Cant you afford to spend a little more time on the shocks and make them 
good? or will you let them go like this one and lose from five to ten cents 
per bushel on the crop? 

and dry. It is well to have the binder in good order before har- 
vest time, so that no time will be lost in saving the crop. The 
bundles should not be allowed to lie on the ground, but should 
be shocked up at once. The shocking should be well done. Poorly 
shocked wheat is worse than no shocking at all. Shocks should 
have one or two bundles on top for caps to shed the rain. The 
bundles must be firmly set on the ground or the shock will fall 
over to one side, which lets many of the heads of the wheat touch 
the damp ground and damage the grain. 



28 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



THRESHING. 



After wheat has been in the shock lonsf enough 



to get thoroughly dry it should be either threshed 
or stacked. When once dry in the shock it must be kept dry. If 
the grain is damp it will heat in the bin or stack and be injured. 
As far as the cost is concerned, there is not much difference 
between threshing from the stack or the shock. 




Fig. 15. Well luado s'ac 
coldi- of sraiu l)v '"swcatiiii 



jram lu a 



)nditi<in and iniiirnve the 



MARKETING 
GRAIN. 



Before a farmer begins to market his wheat, 
he should save the seed for the next year's 
planting. Many farmers forget this and market 
all their wheat except enough in the bottom of the bin to use for 
seeding. This is a mistake, for many small, poor seeds are then 
used. He should first see that the best wheat he raised is saved 
for seed, then sell the rest. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



29 



SAVING 

SEED. 



In saving" grain for seed purposes, every farmer 
should strive to get the largest, plumpest and heavi- 
est seeds. Run some of the grain threshed through 
a fanning mill and save the best half of what is run through for 
seed. If the fanning mill is run very fast the heavy seeds will 
be the ones to come out beneath or in front. All the light, small 




Fig. It}. Selecting seed wheat witli a fanning mill. Note the heavy seed 
coming out at the right and the light seed and chaff at the left. In getting 
the best seed in this way, the mill should be run rapidly. 



or shrunken kernels will be blown over the end of the sieve at 
the back. (See Fig. on page 16.). No better selection than this 
can be made except by hand. 

Nearly all the wheat grown is used by the millers to 
make flour for bread. A very small part of each 
vVrihAl. yejji-'s crop is fed to live stock. In making flour, 
however, there are a good many by-products, such as bran, 
shorts, middlings, etc. These the millers sell to the farmers for 
feed for stock. The screenings from wheat, that is, the very 
small and cracked kernels together with the weed seeds, are fed 
to poultry and to sheep and cows. 



30 



RUKAI. SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 




ft'-' 






>**'- ■ Zjt- ' '-^- 




le 














- II 





1 




II 


■ 




■ 
■ 
- 


£+- 





















Ki.ff. 17. Samplos of Milled prodnrts illustrating the vai-iotis operations 
111 Millini; wheat. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICLT.'I TRI-. ^t 



KEY TO FKi n 



1. Wheat as it is received at tlie mil. 

2. Screenings taken out of wheat. 

3. Clean wlieat ready to grind. 

4. After 1st grinding or breali. 

5. Middlings sifted out of No. 4. 

6. Ready for id grinding. 

7. After second grinding. 

S. Middlings sifted out of No. 7. 

9. Ready for 3d grinding. 

10. No. 1 coarse Middlings before purifying. 

11. Fine bran talien out of No. 10. 

12. No. 1 or coarse Middlings after purifyi' 

13. No. 2 Middlings before purifying. 

14. Fine bran and dust taken out of No. 13. 
1.5. No. 2 Middlings after purifying. 

16. Best grade flour. 

17. 1st Clears (2d Grade of flour^. 

15. 2d Clears (3d Grade of flour). 

19. Red dog (1st Grade of feed). 

20. Shorts or standard Middlings. 

21. Bran. 

22. Pure wheat germ. 

23. Flour Middlings. 

24. Entire Wheat Flour. 



OUTLINE OF THE PROCESS OF MILLING. 

"Sample No. 1 shows the wheat as it comes to the mill in the cars from 
the country. Here it is shoveled by means of power shovels into large Hopper 
Scales which weigh it accurately. From the Hopper Scales by means of Con- 
veyors and Elevators, it is carried into the storage bins. 

From the storage bins the wheat goes to the first cleaning process, wlibh 
is known as a Milling Separator. It is a series of metal sieves. Perforations 
of the first two are just large enough for a kernel of wheat to pass through and 
therefore oats, straw, and other impurities larger than a kernel of wheat are 
separated from the wheat on these sieves. The lowest sieve of the series has 
perforations considerably smaller than a kernel of wheat, through which the 
small mustard seeds and other impurities which are smaller than a wheat ker- 
nel pass. Some of these impurities are shown in sample No. 2. 

From the Milling Separator the wheat is passed through what is called the 
wheat scourer, which is in the form of an upright perforated cylinder, in the 
center of which, revolving about the shaft, are large beaters. The wheat falls 
down in the center, is struck by the beaters, and is thrown against the outer 
wall, and after revolving a number of times against the casting it passes out 



32 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

through the bottom of the cylinder. While it is falling through the cylinder 
there is a strong current of air passing upward which carries off the dust. 

After the wheat passes through these cleaning systems it is all ready to go 
on to the rolls and is shown in No 3. After being thoroughly cleaned, it passes 
to the first set of corrugated rolls. — that is, rolls having ridges cut lengthwise, 
about 10 to 14 of these ridges to every inch of circumference. This is called 
the first reduction as shown in No. 4. 

After passing through these rolls it goes into one end of a long reel cov- 
ered with coarse bolting cloth. The Middlings shown in No. 5 pass througli 
this cloth and what remains of the wheat passes over the end of the reel and 
from there goes to the second reduction rolls, which are similar to the first. 

This process is repeated five times and after the Middlings are taken out 
after the fifth reduction, all that is left of the wheat is the Bran, which is 
shown in sample No. i;i. 

Before the Middlings can be reduced into flour, the fine Bran and dust must 
be taken out of them, or, in other words, they must be purified. Before the 
purification can be accomplished thoroughly the Middlings must be divided into 
various grades with respect to size. This is accomplished by running all the 
Middlings into the end of a long reel, which is covered with various sizes of 
bolting cloth. On the head jf the reel is a very fine cioth through which the flour 
passes : the next section is covered with a cloth a little coarser, through which 
the finest grade of Middlings pass: the next section still coarser, and so on up 
to the end of the reel. What is too coarse to go through the last section of 
the reel passes over the end. 

After the Middlings are graded they pass over the end known as the Mid- 
dlings Purifier. This is a long narrow sieve with a strong current of air passing 
upwards through the cloth. The Middlings travel from one end of the sieve 
very gradually to the other end. The strong current of air carries off the tine 
dust to the Dust Collector and the tine Bran being much lighter than the' Mid- 
dlings, Ls suspended by the air current from the cloth, while the Middlings go 
through the cloth, the Bran being carried by the current of air to the tail of the 
machine and is thus separated from the Middlings. This fine Bran is shown in 
No. 11, and the Middlings after the Bran is taken out in No. 12. 

This process is the same for the various grades of Middlings. After the 
Middlings are thoroughly purified they are reduced similar to the gradual reduc- 
tion of the wheat except thnt instead of having the rolls corrugated, they are 
smooth ; that is, the coarsest grade of Middlings is ground, then passed on to a 
reel clothed with a very fine cloth through which the fine dust passes and goes 
to the flour bin. I'articles of me Middlings that are too coarse to pass through 
the cloth go over the end of the refl and on to another set of rolls, being ground 
again, and pass through another reel, the flour being taken out . 

This process is repeated for all grades of Middlings until all have been re- 
duced to tlour. The Clears and lower grades of flour are made from, the fine Bran 
and dust that is taken out of the Middlings during the process of purification. 
This is done by grinding on smooth rolls this fine Bran and dust. The Bran 
will not break up, but will fiatten out and when the product is passed on to a 
reel clothed with a fine '-loth, the Bran will not go through the cloth but will 
go over the end of the reel, and the flour passes through the cloth. 

This flour, of course, contains very fine particles of Bran which it is im- 
possible to separate from it and, therefore, cannot be run into the highest grades 
of flour and is sold for either ' st. Clears, 2d Clears, or Red Dog, according to 
the amount of Bran it contains. 

Entire Wheat Flour (shown in sample No. 24 1 is made by simply grinding 
the entire wheat on a corragat^d roll, removing only the coarse fibrous part of 
the Bran. ' 

From Washlmrn-Crosby Co. Sample Case. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 33 

Breakfast foods and macaroni are also made from wheat. It 
is supposed that macaroni is all made from the JMacaroni or 
Durum wheat, but whether this be true or not, macaroni can be 
made from the fife and blue-stem wheats. 



The process of milling wheat is very interesting. The 
intricate methods and machinery used in separating 
FLOUR. the various parts of the kernels into so many "milled" 
products is little less than wonderful. The wheat received from 
the elevators is first thoroly cleaned of dirt and weed seed. If 
it is infested with smut it is passed thru a scouring device, which 
removes the smut particles from the wheat. The next process 
is tempering. This is usually done by steam. By passing the 
grain thru steam it takes on a little moisture. This is for the 
purpose of softening the kernels so that in grinding the bran does 
not break up into small particles and mix with the flour. After 
tempering, the grain is passed thro the break or rollers. The 
breaking is not all done at once, but in five processes. It is com- 
monly supposed that in passing between these rolls the wheat 
is crushed, but such is not the case. The rolls are so geared 
that one revolves slowly while the other revolves very rapidly. 
The rollers are corrugated, — thus the wheat, in passing between 
them is cut or broken rather than pressed or crushed. On this 
account the grain coming thro the first pair of rolls is called 
"ist Break." 

After the first break the wheat goes into one end of a large 
reel covered with coarse bolting cloth. The fine "middlings" 
pass thro the cloth while the coarse parts pass over the end of the 
reel into a second pair of rolls similar to the first. This process 
is repeated five times. Each time the separation is more and 
more complete until at last only the bran is left. 

Before the separation is complete and the pure flour obtained, 
the fine bran and dust must be purified. Before this process is 
complete the middlings are passed thro a long reel covered with 
difl^erent sizes of bolting cloth — thus the various grades are 
divided. 

After being graded the middlings pass thro a "purifier." — This 



34 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

is a long, narrow, cloth sieve, with a strong air blast passing up- 
wards thro it. The dust is, in this w'ay, blown out while the bran 
particles are held in suspension in the air and the fine middlings 
pass thro the cloth. 

After this process the middlings again go thro a reduction pro- 
cess similar to that of the wheat except that the rolls are smooth. 
This goes on until all the flour has been worked out. Some of 
the flour of the last reduction process will have many particles 
of fine bran in it. It cannot be run in with the highest grades 
of flour, but is left unmixed and sold as ist Clear, 2d Clear or 
Red Dog — according to the amount of bran it contains. ( SeeFig. ) 

-r\/^ The judging of wheat is based upon points or 
characters. These characters have some relation to 
// tibAl . i-j-j^, jiniount and kind of flour the wheat will make. 
The wheat score card is made up so as to give most emphasis 
to the points that are of most importance. For example : 
Shrunken grain does not make good flour. Therefore, plump 
grain is desirable and is given 25 points out of the total 100 for 
a perfect lot. On the other hand, uniform size and shape are an 
advantage to the miller, but these are given only 10 points. 



SEED FOR CONTEST 

An exhibit shall consist of one peck of selected grain and ten 
selected seed heads with stalks at least six inches long. 

To select the twelve heads watch the field from the time the 
wheat begins to head until it is ripe. When an extra good head 
is found mark the place with a stake and tie a small white rag 
on the stalk of the selected head. In this way mark fifty or more 
heads that come out first and grow tallest and have the largest, 
best-filled heads. Harvest all of these and then select the ten 
best from them. Make a small bundle of the selected heads and 
tie the bundle loosely just below the heads and tig^-.tly at the base 
of the stem. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



35 



SCORE CARD FOR SEED WHEAT 



- Minnesota Judging School 



Division of Agriculture. 






St. 


Anthony Park, Minn. 


POINTS NOTED 


Stand- 
ard 
Score 


;S'mple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple S'mple 
No. !No. 
Score j Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


1. Weight per bushel 


25 












2 Uniformity and Purity 


10 












3. Color 


15 












4. Plumpness 


25 












5. Condition of Bran 


5 












6. Market Condition 


20 










Total Points 


100 


i 







36 RL'KAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

EXPLANATION AND RULES OF SCORE CARD 

Weight per Bushel. 

The standard weight is 60 pounds per bushel. Any sample 
weighing less should be given a lower score than the standard. 

Rule. — By means of a testing kettle get the weight per bushel. 
This may also be determined by weighing very carefully an even 
peck of the grain, then multiplying by 4, the number of pecks 
in a bushel. If the sample has a weight less than 60 pounds per 
bushel, ciit one point off the score card for eacJi pound less than 
the standard. Thus, if the sample weighed 55 pounds per bushel 
it would score only 20 points. 

Uniformity and Purity. 

This is an important point in all grain intended for 
seed purposes, and should be closely observed. The 
size and shape of the kernels will often help in judging the 
purity of the seed. For example : Fife and blue-stem wheat ker- 
nels are different. The one short and thick and the other long. 
xAll the kernels should closely resemble each other. 

Rule. — To judge the score of uniformity of a sample examine 
it closely and estimate the relative amount of difterence in size 
and in shape. Then judge about how near it comes to being 
pure. Cut the score according to hozv near the sample comes to 
being perfect. 

Color. 

The color of wheat has much to do with the quality. 
For example: If it has been frequently wet with rains, or has 
been heated in the bin, or has been frosted, the natural color is 
changed and the seed has been somewhat injured. Good seed 
wheat has a hard, flinty clear color and good luster. 

Rule. — Keep in mind what perfect wheat should look like. Then 
see how near the sample comes to your idea and mark accord- 
ingly. It is very seldom that a sample is marked perfect. 

Plumpness. 
The plumpness of wheat is important to millers in mak- 
ing flour. The plumpest kernels have the most flour. For 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 37 

seed purposes plump grain is the best and gives larger yields. 

Rule. — The rule for judging this point is the same as for 
judging color. See about how near the sample comes to being 
perfectly plump, and cut the score card in proportion to zvhat it 
Jacks in being plump. 

Condition of Bran. 

If the bran or seed coat is wrinkled the milling qual- 
ities are reduced. The cause for the wrinkled con- 
dition may have been such as to injure the value of the grain for 
seed purposes. 

Ride. — Cut the score card according to the e.rtent of the 
zvrinkled or otherivise injured condition of the bran. 

Market Condition. 

Under this head are considered the amount of dis- 
eased or injured kernels and the dirt. All injured seeds 
are detrimental to the grain for seed purposes, therefore 
no such seeds should be found in samples of seed grain. Smutted 
or moldy kernels, cracked kernels, and dust or dirt .-hould not 
be tolerated in seed grain. 

Ride. — Cut the score card according to the amount of dirt and 
dust, and the number of diseased or otherivise injured kernels. 

Adding the Score. 

Add all the scores given under the six heads. The 
sum of these will be the standing or score of the 
sample. After all the samples have been judged, the scores can 
be compared and the best ones picked out of those with highest 
score. 

See appendix for bulletins on this subject. 



38 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



HISTORY 



OATS 

Cultivated oats are supposed to have been origin- 



ated from wild oats. There is very little difference 
between the cultivated and the wild oats. The earliest mention 
of oats is found in the history of Roman Agriculture about four 




Fig. IN. Types of Oat kernels; Top low, Wild oats: Middle row, slen- 
der type ; Bottom row, potato type. Note the beard, the basal hairs and oval 
base of the wild oat. The slender oats commonly have a thinner hull than 
the potato type. 

hundred years before Christ. The oat is a native of the country 
north of the Mediterranean Sea, probably Central Europe, and 
has been introduced into the newer countries early in their 
development. 



DESCRIPTION 



The oat plant is very much like wheat when 
it is young. When fully developed the stems 
also resemble wheat, but are generallv coarser. The seed heads of 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



39 



oats are very different from wheat. The flowers are borne at 
the top of the straw in clusters called panicles. The kernels are 
borne in twos at the ends of very small slender branches. 

J V HERE Oats are grown in nearly every country in the tem- 
OATS ARE perate zone. They do best in fairly cool climates. 
GROWN. In the United States oats are not much grown 
south of the old Mason and Dixon line, except in Texas. The 




Fig. 1'.). Two types of oat panicles. 1. The side or horse mane ; and, 2. 
the open or spreading. 

states growing the largest amounts are Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, 
Minnesota and Wisconsin. There is hardly a farmer who does 



40 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

not i^row some oats. In Scotland, oats are given the first place 
on the farms and are more extensively grown than any other 
crop. 

rjr'p(^ Most of the oats grown are used for feed for horses. 

They make an excellent food for all kinds of 
OF O 4TS 

stock, especially the young animals. The greatest 

good can be obtained when the oats are ground before feeding, 
but this is not essential. Oats are extensively used as a food for 
man. The Scotch have always been noted as oatmeal eaters. In 
recent years the English and American people have used oats, 
in various forms, as a breakfast food. The straw, though not 
so good as hay, is used by the farmers for feeding horses and 
other stock during the winter months. It is also used for bed- 
ding animals. 

TVPn<^ Oats are divided into two classes, according to the 

shape of the panicles, viz., the spreading and the 
side oats. The side oat is so called because the 
seeds appear mostly on one side of the panicle, whereas in the 
spreading type the panicle is open and branching in all direc- 
tions. Oats are also divided into classes according to color, as 
white, black, yellow, red and gray. The white oats are the most 
common and are generally preferred. 

PREP -IT^ING ^Vhatever is true in regard to getting land ready 
^ ,,,^ r-.-. ,-, for wheat is also true for oats. Fall plowed land 
LAND FOR , 1 1 , r 1 1 11 1 

should be disced or harrowed early to cause weeds 

to germinate. A harrowing later, just before 
planting, will then kill them. The ground should be free from 
weeds (especially wild oats) and should be made smooth and 
fine before seeding. Manure should not be applied to land the same 
year that oats are to be sown. It makes too heavy a growth of 
straw, which causes the oats to lodge. 

Oats should not be planted as early in the spring 

as wheat, tor the plants are not so hardy m the 

soil and weather. Sow oats when the weather and soil are fairly 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTL'RE 4I 

warm. In Minnesota this is about May first. In nearly every 
case it is preferable to sow with a drill. The broadcast seeder 
requires more seed and does not get the seed in evenly. Farmers 
use about two to two and one-half bushels of seed to sow an 
acre. On heavy, rich soils it is generally thought best to use 
more seed than on light soils. Plant deeper on light than on 
heavy soils. Two and one-half inches is about an average depth 
for planting. 

Tj A-D77T-<r^TTK-r- ^o gct the best results oats should be bar- 

Jrl/iKy £LO 1 ll\ Lr. . 1 t r 1 , , , T- 

vested betore they become dead ripe. Even 
if low places are quite green, more will be gained by cutting 
early than by waiting until these places are ripe, for when thev 
are ripe the rest of the field is over-ripe. Oats that are over-ripe 
scatter and lose many seeds during harvest. Better color in the 
grain is also obtained by cutting early. The bundles should be 
shocked the same day as cut and the shocks must be well capped, 
and covered with two bundles or the color of the oats will be 
damaged. The color has much to do with the price paid on the 
market, therefore it should be protected wherever possible. Dew 
and rain make the hulls yellow or dirty brown. 

-._ Before taking oats to the market the grain 
should be clean of dust, dirt and foul .-eed. 
Oats are usually a more or less dusty grain, and if the crop is 
very bad the buyer either pays less than market price or deducts 
one or more pounds per bushel for dirt and weed seeds. The 
farmers often put the best grain in the top of the sack or the load 
and a poor lot in the middle or bottom, thinking that it will sell 
better. But this is a mistake. When the grader or buyer finds 
the grain like that, the whole lot is graded according to the poor- 
est grain in the sack. Therefore the farmer really cheats him- 
self, for he is sure to be found out. 

-, It is much harder to tell the value of oats by look- 
ing at them than it is with any other grain. The 
SFFD J b 

largest kernels may not be found the heaviest ker- 
nels for they may be simply hulls without a seed. Sometimes 



42 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



the largest kernels are simply two oat kernels held withhi one 
glume. The best way to get good seed is to run the oats through 
a good fanning mill and save only the heaviest seed. A great 
difference in weight can thus be obtained. For example, the 
Minnesota Experiment Station did this with a variety of common 
oats and got a difference in weight of i6 pounds per bushel. The 
heaviest weighed 37 pounds and the lightest 21 pounds per bushel 
The yields from these two classes of seed were 64.09 bushels 
for the heaviest and 54.59 for the lightest seed. 

-r\7/- '^'^^ j'-idging of a sample of oats is not an easy 
matter, for the real value of the oat is hidden by 
L>AIb. ^i-^Q h^iiis. Yet there are certain characters which 

show themselves when a studv of the oats is made. 



SCORE CARD FOR SEED OATS. 



Minnesota Judging School, 
Division of Agriculture. St. Anthony Park, Minn. 



Points Noted 


Stand- 
ard 
Score 


S'mple S'mple 
No. No. 
Score Score 


S'inple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


1. Weight per Bushel 


25 












2. Plumpness and Quality 


20 












3. Uniformity and Purity 


20 










4. Color 


10 












5. Market Condition 


25 












Total Points 


100 












Remarks 















RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 43 

OATS— RULE AND EXPLANATION OF POINTS 

An exhibit must consist of at least one peck and 12 selected 
seed heads accordin,^ to the method described for wheat. 

Weight per Bushel. 

The standard weight in Minnesota is 32 pounds per 
bushel. By means of a patent weighing kettle or by 
taking a 4-quart measure of the grain and getting" its weight 
on grocery scales then multiplying by 8, the weight per bushel 
can be obtained. 

Rule. — Cut tzvo points from the score card for each pound less 
than the standard weight per bushel (32 pounds). Thus, if 
the sample weighs 30 pounds per bushel it would score only 21 
points. 

Plumpness. 

This character must be observed very closely, as the 
eye is easily deceived by the hull being well rounded out. 
It frequently happens that two kernels are enclosed within one 
hull. This makes the hull appear very plump, but in reality it 
is the opposite. One good way to judge plumpness is to squeeze 
a handful of the oats. If they do not spring much they are well 
filled. Look closely at the tip of the hulls. If they are short and 
broad they indicate plumpness, but if they are rather slender 
and pointed, the seed is either wanting or it is very small and 
poorly filled. 

Ride. — There is no set rule by which the plumpness may be 
scored. The judge should look carefully for poorly filled hulls, 
double seeds, etc. Then cut the score card about ivhat he thin.ks 
the sample lacks of being perfect in plumpness. 

LIniformity and Purity. 

The uniformity of the kernels is very important in 
oats for seeding, and in determining the purity of the 
breed represented. All the seeds should be of the '■ame 
general size and of an even color and should all be of the shape 
that represents the variety. 



44 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Rule. — As in the case of plumpness, there is no definite rule 
by which to score. The judges must estimate the relative num- 
ber that arc not like the majority and cut the score card accurd- 
ingly. 

Color. 

No matter what the color of the sample is, every seed 
should be of the color that represents the variety. A white var- 
iety should not be mixed with yellow or black or gray kernels, 
nor should a black variety have any but black kernels. The 
color should also be bright and clear. 

Rule. — For every 5 kernels of another color or variety cut one 
point on the score card. Also cut sonic for discolored or bleached 
kernels. 

AIarket Condition. 

Under this head are considered bad kernels, dirt, foul 
weed seed, maturity, etc. There is no excuse for oats be- 
ing dirty or foul, therefore the market condition should 
be thoroughly examined and scored severely. 

Rule. — The judging of this point is very similar to that of 
plumpness. After inspecting the sample carefully, cut the score 
in proportion to the relative amount of dirt, poor or defective 
kernels, etc. If, for example, the sample has some dirt and weed 
seeds in it, and shows signs of having been wet or has a good 
many bad kernels, it could he cut to 20 points or more, depending 
upon the amount of the dirt, etc. 

If it is difficult to tell how much dirt, etc., there is in the sam- 
ple, get a sieve and sift out the dirt. TJien iveight it and cut the 
score accordiii'^lv. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 45 

BARLEY 

Barley has been grown for its grain for many hun- 
dred years. The ancient Egyptians, Assyrians and 
other people about the Mediterranean sea grew barley more than 
a thousand years before the birth of Christ. It was grown 
extensively in England and was introduced into America (prob- 
ably first in Nova Scotia) about 1600 A.D. It was growing in 
Virginia in 161 1, at Lynn, Mass. in 1629, and formed the chief 
agricultural product in Rhode Island in 1796. Since that time 
it has spread over the entire North American continent. 

Barley belongs to the great family of grasses 
and is known on the market as one of the 
coarse grains. When the plants are young it is easy to tell them 
from oats or wheat, for they are of a lighter green color and 
have broader leaves. The mature plants are not unlike oats and 
wheat in general appearance except the spike or head. The 
flowers of the spike are arranged very much as the flowers of 
the wheat plant, but their individual make-up is enough differ- 
ent to make it easy to tell the two apart. (See Fig. 21. Page 47. 
Typical Barley Spikes.) 

When threshed the hulls remain around the seed, except in 
the so-called hulless barley. 

TjrTTp-Dp Nearly every state in the union is a producer of 

^,, barley. Minnesota and California produce more 
f' 4RLEy ■ 

than the other states. Minnesota produces more 

IS UKUIVIM. |.j^^j^ 29 million bushels. The northern states as a 
rule grow more than the southern states. Upon Minnesota farms 
barley is not one of the chief crops raised until the land has be- 
come badly infested with wild oats and other weeds. Barley ma- 
tures early and on that account is cut before the wild oat seeds 
are ripe. After it has once been grown on a farm, the farmer 
usually plants a small area annually. 



46 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



USES OF 

BARLEY. 



Ancient Eg}^ptian history states that barley was one 
of the first grains to be used as food for man. We 
are also told that it was one of the principal foods 

of the poor classes of people until late in the history (1600 A.D.) 

of the Christian era. Since that time it has been used more for 

a stock food and less by man. 

Barley has long been known as the "Brewer's Grain." It is 

called this because the breweries use it extensively for the manu- 




Fig. i'(). Typos of Barley kernels : Six-row barley in the bottom row, Two 
row barley in middle row, Hulless barley in top row. 



facture of beer. In this process the barley is sprouted, then dried. 

From this dried grain the essence essential for beer is extracted. 

Barley, if ground into a meal, is especially good for young 



stock. 



It also furnishes the elements necessary for fattening' 



animals. When corn is not extensively grown, barley may form 
the principal grain ration to fatten all classes of stock. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



47 




Fis. -1 Types of Barley — Beginning on the left they are Hexagon 
row — Manshury. 6 row — Duckbill 2 row — Beardless two row — Long Two row- 
Mandschvri 6 row and Beardless 6 row. 



48 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

KIXDS OF There are two distinct groups into which all bar- 
BARLEY. leys grown may be classified. These are the Six 
Rowed and the Two Rowed groups. They are called Two 
Rowed and Six Rowed because of the way the kernels are 
arranged upon the spike ; the Two Rowed with a row of kernels 
on either side of the stem and the Six Rowed having two rows 
of three kernels each. In the Six Rowed class we have the com- 
mon Six Rowed, the Beardless, the Hulless and the Hexagon 
six-rowed types. In the Two Rowed group we have the Long 
Two Rowed, the Duck Bill and the Beardless Two Rowed types. 
The types most found in Minnesota are as follows: 

1. The Common Six-rowed barley is the one that gives the 
largest yields and best satisfaction. The varieties of this Type 
that have proved best are the Mandscheuri, the Manshury and 
the ( )derbrocker. 

2. The Beardless Barley has never succeeded in Minnesota. 

3. The Hulless Six-rowed barley is grown only for stock Al! 
other types of barley hold the hull when threshed. This one 
threshes out free from the hulls like wheat and rye. 

4. The Hexagon type is grown only in an experimental way. 
It is not a tall growing variety, but stands straight and bears a 
very regular, short, compact spike. 

5. The Long Two-rowed barley is a very good kind, but does 
not yield as much as the six-row type. It is especially desired 
by brewers in the East and in Europe. The Chevalier variety 
is the most common of this type. 

6. The Duck Bill two-row barley has a shorter spike than 
the Long Two-row varieties, but the spike is much broader and 
is narrower at the top than at the base, thus giving it the shape 
of a duck's bill. Hence its name. 

7. A Beardless Two-rowed type of barley is sometimes seen, 
but, like the six-rowed beardless, it is of no economic value. 

PPFPARJNC '^'^^ suggestions for preparing land for wheat 

.^'7~, r-rMo ^^^ o^^^ '^^^^'^ ^^so apply for barlev. Barlev, how- 

ever, is not a gross feeder : that is. its root sys- 

. |.p,-|-| jg j^Qj- ^g large as the root system of wheat, 

oats and corn, and it must therefore have a richer soil than oats. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 49 

The heavy soils should be plowed in the spring, disked and har- 
rowed fine. The harrowing must be done the same day that the 
plowing is done; otherwise the soil dries out too much. This 
extra work will pay well, because of larger yields that will be 
obtained. It will also be possible because the wheat and oat seed- 
ing will be finished and it is not necessary to get barley seeded 
extremely early. 

, _ When the danger from frost and cold weather is past 
it is safe to plant barley. The actual calender date 
hAKLhr . ^jjj^ q£ course, vary with the season. At the Minne- 
sota Experiment Station the barley has been sown from April 
first to May fifteenth. 

The amount of seed barley usually sown by the farmers is 
eight pecks per acre. The Experiment Station finds that seven 
pecks give best results. This amount should be ample if the seed 
has been properly tested and graded. The seed should be sown 
about two and one-half inches deep in ordinary soil; deeper in 
sandy soil and shallower in heavy wet soils. 

^^ , _,^^^,-,^^,.„ The greatest of care should be exercised in 
HARVESTING , ,. ^ , , , ., 

harvestmg the barley crop at the proper time, 

tSAKl^nY . ^^^ jj^ properly shocking the bundles after the 

crop is cut. The color of the grain is a very important item in 
the grading and it should be kept white and bright. Discolored, 
yellow or brown grain will not bring the high price that is de- 
sirable when selling the crop. Aside from bringing a lower price, 
discolored barley is not as good feed. 

To prevent barley from losing its bright, white color, the 
bundles should be shocked and carefully capped as soon as cut 
(See Fig 13.). This prevents the sun, dew and rain from 
doing the damage. 

The time to cut barley is just before it is dead ripe. It has, 
at that time, a creamy white appearance. Perhaps, also, a slight 
tinge of green may be occasionally seen. 

-, Barley is so commonly used as a "cleaning" 

crop that it is seldom that a carload of clean 

barley reaches the market. When marketing the crop farmers 



50 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

pay very little attention to cleaning. It is for this reason that 
Wisconsin barley brings a higher price than Minnesota barley. 
The same statements made for marketing oats will apply to bar- 
lev. But above all, barley must be free from all other grains — 
as wheat and oats, and must be all of the same variety. A notice- 
able per cent of either will injure the malting qualities, hence 
reducing the price. The reason for this is obvious. The malt 
houses demand a barley that is not discolored and is free from 
all foreign seeds. In the process of malting it is necessary that 
all seeds germinate at the same time. If, however, other grains 
are mixed with the barley or the barley is of mixed types, (two 
and six row) the germination will be uneven and the malt ruined. 
Malt houses require from looo to 1500 bushels of barley to make 
a run profitable. The loss, therefore, is great if the germination 
is imperfect. 

It is not difficult to tell the plump, well filled barley 
grains from those that are shrunken and light in 
^>i^L.u. weight. Any grains that show a tendency toward 
slenderness are to be avoided. They are not well filled and are 
therefore weak. (Note in figure* the bottom row of kernels as 
compared with the two top rows). The fanning mill is the best 
"all around" machine to grade the seed. The largest and heavi- 
est should be saved for seeding. By grading and saving the big- 
gest and plumpest grain for seed each year the average yield can 
be increased five or more bushels per acre. The Minnesota 
Experiment Station has in this way secured the variety called 
Minnesota No. 105 barley, which has yielded 52.9 bushels for an 
average of eight years. 

No barley should be used for seed if it weighs less than the 
standard. 4S pounds per bushel. 

To' judge barley a person must be informed as to 

the points of value. If the barlev is for brewing, 
R A R T PY ' ■ ^^ 

. ^Y\Q color and the purity is of great importance. For 

seeding the color does not have as great a value, but should be 

taken into account, as it is an indication of damage to the seed. 

The purity and freedom from foul seeds is important. No dirty 

*Fig. 0. i.iigo 14. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



51 



impure or poor germinating barley should be used. A farmer 
can do more harm in one year by using foul and impure seed 
grain than two or three years work will set right. The best is 
none too good when it comes to the seed question. The net 
returns are more or less dependent upon and in proportion to 
the quality of the seed used. If a farmer is to get the largest 
possible returns from a crop, he must make every efifort to create 
conditions that will warrant such results. 

SCORE CARD FOR SEED BARLEY 



Minnesota Judging School 
Division of Agriculture. St. Anthony Park, Minn. 



Points Noted 


Stand- 
ard 
Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


S'mple 

No. 

Score 


1. Weight per bushel 


25 
15 












2. Plumpness 












3. Uniformity and Purity 


15 










4. Color 


20 












5. Market Conditions 


25 












Total Points 


100 













52 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

DESCRIPTION AND RULES 

Weight per Bushel. 

The standard weight per bushel of barley is fixed by law at 
48 pounds. The barley may possibly weigh more, but should nevet 
weigh less. The weighing kettle may be used to determine the 
weight or a given measure may be accurately weighed. 

Ritle.—Ctit 011c Olid one-half {iy2) points off the score for 
each pound less than the standard. Thus if a sample weighed 46 
pounds it would score only 22 points. 

Plumpness. 

To be plump barley kernels should be rounded and full ; the 
crease well closed in ; the ends of the kernels blunt, not long and 
tapering. 

Rule.— Cut the score according to the relative amount of poor- 
ly filled and shrunken kernels. Good judgment is a virtue in 
ascertaining plumpness. 

Uniformity and Purity. 

Grain that is uniform in size, in quality and in purity will give 
the best possible returns. The seeds will germinate evenly, grow 
evenly and mature evenly if the grain has been graded to a uni- 
form standard. Purity should be given special consideration. 
No mixtures of other grains or varieties should be tolerated in 
seed barley. 

Rule. — Cut the score according to the lack of uniforniity and 
purity. 

Color. 

It is important that barley be of the proper color. A creamy 
white is generally considered best, but the color varies more or 
less with the variety. The so-called Blue barley, for instance, 
has a slight tinge of dark blue. Whatever the color is it should 
be true to the variety represented. Any discoloring of barley is 
an indication of a certain degree of injury to the seed. Tests 
show plainly that the greater the discoloring the poorer the ceed. 

Rule. — Cut the score in accordance icith the lack of true color 



rural school agriculture 53 

Market Condition. 

The market condition of seed barley includes maturity, free- 
dom from mustiness, smut, bin burned and frosted kernels, or 
otherwise damaged kernels and weed seeds. A careful exam- 
ination will be necessary to detect these conditions. 

Rule. — Cut the score in proportion to the degree in zvhich 
these conditions are present. 

The Final Score. 
Add the scores given to each of the points and the sum will be 
the total score of the sample judged. In other words it repre- 
sents the percentage value of the grain for seed purposes. 



54 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



CORN 

Corn, as we speak of it, was not known in the old 

. ^^,Qj.]j ^^j-^^jj ^f^gj. Columbus discovered America in 

1492. The people in Europe mean wheat or rye or oats when 

they speak of corn. When they wish to speak of our corn they 

say maize — which is the botanical, or scientific name. 

The growing of corn originated among the Indian tribes 
along the Atlantic coast. The Indians knew nothing of the old 
world ways of farming, but every year they planted small patches 
of corn in the small open places in the forests. In the fall they 
husked the corn and piled it in a sheltered place. They covered 
the piles as we cover potatoes nowadays to keep off the frost 
and snow. Corn is a native of Mexico and Central America. 
From Central America it was carried both north and south. 

Although corn is very large and coarse and differ- 
ent from most of our grasses, it belongs to the grass 

'TJO]\T <j <.7 

■^ •' ^ • family. Its habits of growth are the same as the 

habits of grass. It is an annual. That is, it ripens its seed the 
same year as planted, and lives only one season. Most kinds of 
corn do not send up more than one stalk from each seed but 
there are short branches (called suckers) that come from the 
stalk near the ground. These do not often have ears, but do 
sometimes bear tassels. The main stalk is the only one that pro- 
duces seed. The stalks are not hollow like most grasses, but are 
filled with pith. There are several joints in the stalk above 
ground and as many below ground, but those below are very 
much closer together than those above. At every joint above 
ground a small branch is started. These branches are immature 
ears, but only one or two ever grow into mature ears of corn. The 
stalks grow to a height of from 18 inches to 30 or more feet. 
The dift'erence depends upon the type and the locality. 




1. Types of corn kernels common in Minnesota. 1, Rough Dent ; 2, Flint ; 
Early Crosby Sweet; 4. I'op ; 5, Minn. King: 6. No. 13. (smooth Dent). 



»# i# kt ii 



II. Various types of Corn kernels which are a menace to the crop. They 
break the uniformity of the seed and bother in planting, besides being of 
wf'ak vitality. 



(^1 ifk u li 
u II ^i ^P 



III. Types of Corn kernels (some good some bad) commonly selected 
by farmers. From No. 1 the kernels grow gradually poorer to No. 8. 

FIGURE 22. 



56 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



TYPES OF CORN. 

There are six different types of corn grown. The names of 
these types are Dent, FHnt, Sweet, Pop, Soft and Pod corn. 
Minnesota soil and cHmate are not suited to all types, but the 
first four types are common in the state. There are many colors 
of corn : white, yellow and red are most common, but there are 
varieties of black, blue and of calico colors. These colors are not 
distinct for any one type, but all colors may be found in most 
types. 

This type is the most common and best corn raised. It 

gets its name from the fact that it has a dent in the top 

TVPF ■ 

1 1 ri^. q£ g^ch kernel. Dent corn can be grown in all parts of 

Minnesota, but it does not do well in northern Minnesota, as the 
season is too short and cold for corn. The principal varieties 
of dent corn suited to Minnesota soil and climate^ are Minnesota 
No. 13, Minnesota King, Rustler White Dent, Minnesota Leam- 
ing, Dakota County White, Northwestern Dent, and Pride of 
the North. There are also many common varieties grown by 
farmers in the dift'erent parts of the state, but they are not recog- 
nized as true varieties. Many of them, however, are profitable 
to raise. 

Flint corn is mostly grown in the northern climates, 
where the season is short. It is called flint because the 
1 1 rh. kernel has no dent and is very hard and smooth when 
ripe. The most important varieties in Minnesota are Triumph 
Flint, Mercer Flint, Smutnose Flint, King Philip, Longfellow 
and White Flint. Like the dent corn, the colors vary from red 
to yellow and white, but yellow is the most common. Flint corn 
generally matures earlier than dent corn. On this account it 
is more common in northern Minnesota. 

This type of corn is common to the gardens of nearly 

the whole of the United States. On account of its 

tUKA. sweetness this type is often called Sugar corn. It is 

a very common crop in the northern states. There are many 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 5/ 

factories where sweet corn is canned in these states. There are 
several of these factories in Minnesota. The color of sweet corn is 
nearly always white. The best known varieties are the Early Cros- 
by, Early Minnesota, Stowell's Evergreen, Country Gentleman, 
Early Corey and Black Mexican. For canning, the Early Crosby, 
Country Gentleman, and Stowell's Evergreen are preferred. For 
eating green from the cob, all the varieties mav be used. 



Pop corn is another type that is grown chiefly in gar- 
dens. When heated gently over a fire this corn explodes 
LUKJSI. Qj- pops open; thus it gets its name, pop corn. The 
best varieties of pop corn are White Rice, Pearl and Red P. ice. 
These may all be grown in Minnesota. 

This type is grown only in the southern countries and 
is called soft because it is not hard like dent or flint 
LUKiV. cQi-j^^ |3ut IS mealy like wheat or rye. 



POD 



Sometimes this type is called Primitive Corn. Each 
kernel of this corn is held in a little husk by itself sim- 

L(JKI\. -j^j. ^Q oats. Thus it gets its name. This type also is 

grown only in the southern countries. 



USES OF CORN. 

A larger variety of useful articles is made from corn than 
from any other plant grown. It is used extensively for feeding 
all classes of stock and for making glucose and oil. The oil is 
often flavored and sold as oJive oil for table use. In the making 
of glucose and oil there are about forty other products also ob- 
tained. The grain is also made into a meal for use in baking. 
In the South corn-meal is used a great deal. Alcohol is one of 
the products made from corn. The stalks of corn are used for 
feeding stock. The pith is made into bales and used in the sides 
of ships to prevent leakage. One pound of pith will absorb 
twenty pounds of water. 



58 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

GROWING A CORN CROP. 

jN'Iore care is necessary in growing corn than in growing any 
grain crop. And no farm crop will pay better than corn, for 
extra work in preparing the land or cultivating the crop and 
selecting good seed. Corn will do better on a rich, loam soil 
than on a heavy clay or a loose sandy soil. Corn loves a warm 
soil that is well manured. 

PT OJVIKC ^*^'' ^°'"" ^^^^ ground should be plowed in the fall, 
if possible after it has been manured. This will 

turn the manure under and leave the ground loose 
CROP • 

^ ^ SO that the air and water can break it into small 

particles before planting time in the spring. If the land is a 

heavy clay it should be plowed six inches or more deep. If it 

is more or less sandy and loose, plowing about five inches deep 

will give better results. If sod is to be plowed for corn it should 

be plowed as early in the fall as possible. If the land cannot 

be plowed jn the fall and must be plowed in the spring, it should 

be plowed as soon as the frost is out and the ground dry enough 

to plow well. Harrow the land the same day it is plowed. This 

will hold the moisture, and not leave the ground lumpy. 

Fall plowed land should not be harrowed in the 
fall. It should be left as rough as when plowed. 
In the spring harrow as soon as the top soil is dry 
enough to break up easily. If a disc harrow is to be had, it is 
a good implement to use on fall plowcfl land. Just before plant- 
ing harrow again with a light slant-tooth harrow. Always be 
sure that the top of the soil is as fine and smooth as a harrow 
can make it before the planting begins. The seed will then have 
the best chance to grow. 

, Corn is usually jil^ntcl in hills ;_ib'''it: liiree feet 

eight inches apart each way, but where land 

is free from weeds it is sometimes planted in drills or rows tmee 

feet eight inches apart with the kernels twelve inclies apart in 

the row. This way of planting gives somewhat lai'ger yields 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



59 




60 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

but requires some hoeing unless the land is v^iy clean. One 
bushel of seed will plant seven or eight acres of corn for ears, or 
about one acre for fodder. The time to plant in Minnesota is 
from May 5th to May 20th. Nothing is g'ained by planting 
earlier if the ground is cold, for the tender plants are either 
stunted or the kernels rot in the ground. The best depth to plant 
the kernels is about two and one-half inches. Plant a little 
deeper if the soil is dry and light ; plant shallower if the soil is 
heavy and wet. 

GETTI\C 4 ^^ ^'^^'^' seldom happens that a perfect stand of 
corn is secured. The intention is to plant three 
or four or five kernels per hill, but if the num- 
" ber of stalks per hill be counted and averaged 

for the whole field only two or three stalks per hill on the aver- 
age would be found. The reasons for this imperfect stand may 
be summed up under three heads, viz; i. Lack of germination 
tests. 2. Using tip and butt kernels. 3. Using seed that is not 
uniform in size. Since the stand is the basis of yield per acre, 
it is essential that a full stand be obtained. Therefore, the value 
of the above three points cannot be overestimated. 

Results of Seed Strength With Cora 

100 Kernels Planted. Butt Kernels. Middle Kernels. Tip Kernels. 

Per cent Germinated 88 89 68 

Total growth in 20 days 177 inches. 196.6 inches... 151 inches. 

Average growth per plant 2.0 inches 2.2+ inches. 2.2+inches. 

This table plainly shows that the kernels from the middle of 
the ear are the best. The kernels were planted in sterile sand at the 
same time and same depth. Measurements were made each day 
until the plants died. What ever growth is recorded must have 
resulted from the stored up food in the seed and the strength of 
the germ or in other words the inheritance and stamina. 

By cultivating is meant the treatment of the field 

while the corn is growing. Shallow cultivation 

(two to three inches deep) gives best results. Deep 

cultivation Tfour or more inches') cuts the roots of the corn 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



r,i 



Deep cultivatin,8^ also dries out the soil so the corn cannot get 
what moisture it needs. Cultivation should begin when the corn 
is just coming through the ground. At this stage a light slant- 
tooth harrow should be used. The harrow may again be used if 
the presence of weeds warrants it. The corn will not be hurt, 
even if it is four inches high. After this treatment the regular 




Fig. 24. A corn plant, showing all the parts of the stem and the roots. 
Also an ear showing the relative parts. 

cultivator may be used as often as needed until the corn begins 
to tassel out. All cultivation should stop after the first tassels 
come out. Cultivators with several small teeth are better than 
those with two or three large ones. It is not necessary to hill 
the corn by shoveling the dirt up around the stalks, except in 
soil that is very heavy and wet. Corn should be cultivated at 
least three times during the season. The cultivating should be 
done when the weeds are small or when the ground gets dry. 



HARVEST- 
ING CORN. 



There is some difference of opinion as to the 
best method of harvesting the corn crop. Some 
prefer to let it stand until dead ripe and then 



62 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



husk, thus leaving- the stalk to be plowed under or removed 
afterward. (Jthers prefer to cut the corn by hand or with a 
corn binder while the stalks are somewhat green, thus letting 
the corn finish maturing while in the shock. Husking in this 



im, 


•«J'<l»5.* _ 


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rJi 


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-^ ^Tfi^BtdBBl 


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f*"^. V ji"! 


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•^^^Sgftgn 


Ms 


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FiS. :.'.■■> . Slmws thi-i 
L'ars likt' llicsc. 



l.vi' 



li \H:i<y car; 



il sill uld not lie saved t'l-oui 



case is dnne from the shock liy hand or with the shredding and 
husking machine. This is a better way for the average farmer 
to harvest his corn, for he gets more or less coarse fodder for 
his stock iluring the winter and has no trouble with the stalks 
on the field. Corn should alwa\s be harvested before any 
severe frost, esiK'ciallv if the fro'^t comes earlv in the season. If 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 63 

an early frost is likel}' to kill the corn before the ear is well ma- 
tured the crop should be cut. After husking the ears should be 
taken at once to the crib. The seed ears must be dried carefully 
and kept in a dry place. 

Corn is generally marketed on the ear, 72 pounds 

being taken as a bushel in the fall and 70 pounds 

after January first. The cobs, however, are very 

useful on the farm and may be saved if the corn is shelled before 

hauling to the market. The cobs, to the buver, are clear gain, 




Fig. 2G. A box of corn planted in sterile sand. The tip. center and butt 
ivernels, respectively, from 25 ears were shelled together. After thoroly mix- 
ing these, 25 seeds from each lot were planted at the same time and same 
depth. Thus equal conditions were obtained. Note the difference in germina- 
tion and growth. 

for he pays only for the number of bushels, by weight, of corn 
and deducts the weight of cobs. Example : A man's load of 
corn weighs 4,200 pounds. He unloads and his wagon weighs 
1,200 pounds. The corn alone weighs 3,000 pounds. Seventv 
pounds is taken as the weight per bushel of corn on the cob. 
Therefore he has 3,000 divided by 70 or 42.85 bushels. But 56 
pounds is taken as the weight of shelled corn, so there is a loss 
of 14 pounds for each bu.shel or 599.9 pounds. This is the 
weight of the cobs. 

For seed it is better to buy corn on the cob. It is then possi- 
ble to detect poor quality in the corn. 



64 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



„,^ The best way to save seed corn is at husking time. 
S AV I hi G 

The largest, best formed and most mature ears can 

ShbD. i\\Q\\ be secured. The stalks from which the ears are 

taken can also be examined and ears from weak or otherwise 

poor stalks can be avoided. The ears saved for seed must be 

dried in a room that is well ventilated and free from dampness. 

Poor ventilation kills the germ. The room for keeping seed 

corn should not be over a stable nor over a bin of wheat or oats 

for moisture is given off from these and injures the seed. The 

best place to dry seed corn is in a room above the kitchen, where 

the windows can be left open in good weather. Seed corn should 




Fiff. -~ . A jrorid ear of 
be saved from .such ears. 



Note the even shape of kernels. Seed should 



remain on the cob until spring. It keeps much better in this 
way. In buying seed corn — get it as near home as possible. Do 
not save the kernels from the tip or from the butt of the ear. 
Use only the kernels from the middle of the ear for seed. The 
others are of poor quality and make a poor crop. 



JUDGING 
CORN. 



On the city markets corn is always shelled, and 
judged in that condition, but corn for seed should 
always be judged in the ear. The size and form 
of the ear have much to do with the value of the seed. The 
position of the kernels on the cob also has an influence upon the 
value of the seed. Therefore these and other points must be 
considered before the ears are shelled. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 
SCORE CARD FOR SEED CORN EARS. 



65 



Minnesota Judging School, 
Division of Agriculture. St. Anthony Park, Minn. 



Points Noted 


Stand- 
ard 
Score 


S'mple S'mple;S'mple 
No. No. No. 
Score Score Score 


S'mple S'mple 
No. No. 
Score Score 


1. Market Condition 


10 






1 


2. Form of Ear 


15 












3. Size of Ear 


5 












4. Uniformity and 

Variety Characters 


10 








i 


5. Tips of Ears 


10 












6. Butts of Ears 


10 












7. Kernel Uniformity 


5 










Shape 


5 


1 




8. Color Grain 


10 












Color Cob 


5 










9. Space between rows and 


3 












Kernels at Cob 


2 












10. Per cent Grain to Ear 


10 












Total Points 


100 













There are a number of varieties of corn in 
Minnesota. Each of these varieties has a cer- 
tain set of characters that are different from the 
tUK LUKl\. characters of other varieties. Therefore there 



STANDARD 
POINTS 



66 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

must be a set of standard points for each variety. For example : 
The form of the ear of flint corn is different from the form of 
the ear of dent corn. These different characters are recognized 
by a corn judge as quickly as a cattle judge sees the difference 
between a Jersey and a Holstein. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE (f}' 



RULES AXD EXPLANATIONS OF POINTS 

Each entry or exhibit shall consist of ten selected ears. 
Market Condition. 

The ears should be thoroughly mature, dry and sound, 
and should feel firm when taken in the hand. The ker- 
nels must not be injured by mice or worms or by mold ; neither 
should they show any rotten or cracked places. They should 
have a good, bright appearance, and have a large germ. 

Rule. — If the ears have any of these faults they should not be 
given the ful] ten points but be scored according to the extent 
of the defects. For example: If the defects, such as cracked 
kernels, mold and decay or rottenness amount to about as much 
as one whole ear, and the rest of the corn on the ears is good, 
the mark should be 9. If it amounts to more than one whole ear 
and not enough for two ears, mark the exhibit 8^ or 8^4 upon 
market condition, etc. 

Form or Shape of Ear. 

The best formed ears are nearly the same size at 
the tip as at the butt. The rows of kernels should run straight 
from butt to tip. Twisted rows show bad form. The ears can 
be as long or big around as they can be found, but the length 
and the circumference must be proportional, that is, an ear 
must not be too big for its length. The tips and butts of the ears 
should be blunt and well filled with kernels. 

Rule. — There is no definite rule for judging the shape of the 
ear. Always have a perfect shaped ear in mind and mark the 
sample according to how near the ten ears come to being per- 
fect. Make due allowance for variety characters. 

Size of Ear. 

The size of the ear depends upon the standard for the variety 
being judged. For example, Minnesota No. 13 should be 8 
inches long and 6 inches in circumference. No smaller dimen- 
sions will be accepted. 



68 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Rule. — Measure the length of each ear. If an ear is less than 
standard put down the amount it is less than standard. When 
all ten ears are measured, add the amounts that are lacking. 
Then take one point oiT the standard for each 2 inche? thus ob- 
tained. For example : The standard is 8 inches. 

Ear No. i is 7.5 inches long, therefore .5 inch short 5 

Ear No. 2 is 8.5 inches long, therefore nothing short .0 

Ear No. 3 is 8 inches long, therefore nothing short .0 

Ear No. 4 is 7 inches long, therefore i inch short i.o 

Ear No. 5 is 7.75 inches long, therefore .25 inch short .25 

Ear No. 6 is 8.25 inches long, therefore nothing short .0 

Ear No. 7 is 7.25 inches long, therefore .75 inch short .75 

Ear No. 8 is 7.5 inches long, therefore .5 inch short .5 

Ear No. 9 is 9 inches long, therefore nuthing short .0 

Ear No. 10 is 8 inches long, therefore nothing short... .0 



Total short 3.0 

Therefore 1.5 points should be taken from standard. This 
makes the score 3.5 points for the exhibit. 

In the same wav the circumference may be measured with a 
tape line and the shortage figured and cut accordingly. The 
measiu-ement shoidd be made a little below the middle of the 
ear. 

\'ariety Characters. 

The color of the grain and of the cob, the shape of the ker- 
nels and of the dent in one variety are different from others. 
Therefore these are called variety characters. The ears in the 
exhibit should be true to the breed represented. 

Rule. — Any characters that do not represent tlie breed must 
be counted as a^^^ainst the exhibit and some must be counted off 
for the lack of exact breed cJiaracters. 

Tips of Ears. 

The tips of the ears must be well filled with kernels and well 
roimded like a fork handle, not tapering like a horn. The end 
of the cob must be entirelv covered. 

Rule. — Tf the entire end of the cob is exposed, cut off one full 
point for each ear thus found. If a little of the cob is seen or 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 69 

the kernels are not of good size and shape, cut off as much as 
is thong lit proper. 

Butts of Ears. 

These should be even and smooth. The rows of kernels must 
extend over the edge of the butt. The hollow, left after break- 
ing off the shank, should be saucer shaped, and of medium size 
The butt must not be large and open nor small and shrunken. 

Rule. — According to how much the judge thinks that the butts 
of the ten ears lack of being perfect formed butts, lie cuts little or 
much from the score card. 

Kernels. 

Uniformity and Shape. — All the kernels should be alike in 
size, color and other characters. The best shape is what is known 
as the wedge shape, with nearly square corners at the top and 
sides. This shape fills the cob best and gives the most shelled 
corn per ear. Round top kernels or round kernels like those 
found at the tips of the ears are objectionable. The germ should 
be large. 

Rule. — With a blade of a jack-knife pry out two kernels from 
each car and lay them in a line, points down, in front of the 
ears from which they were taken. Look them over and push 
out of line those kernels that are different from the majority. 
Since there are five points for uniformity, each four kernels make 
one point. Therefore take off one point for each four kernels that 
do not remain in the line, or if there are three or four types cut 
accordingly more. 

Do the same way to get the score on shape of kernels. Leave 
only the good, wedge-shaped ones in the line, and mark off one 
point for each four kernels not left in the line. 

Color. 
Grain and cob. — Whatever the color of the variety is, it must 
be bright and clear. This indicates freshness and good quality 
Sometimes a yellow ear of corn will have white or red kernels 
and white corn will have yellow kernels. Also yellow corn may 
ITave a white cob or a white corn a red cob, but this is not a true 
varietv character. Thev should be all of one color. 



yO RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Rule. — Cut one point for every jour kernels of different color 
from that of the I'ariety. Cnt one-half of all the points if a red 
cob is found in white corn or a white cob in yellow corn, unless 
the cobs are all of the same color and it is common to the vari- 
ety. 

Space. 

The space between the kernels is caused by the shape of the 
kernels. The rounded corners and sides make spaces between 
the kernels which should be filled up. When there is a good 
deal of space the per cent of grain to ear is not as large as it 
should be. 

Rule. — Examine each ear and keep in mind the relative amount 
of space found in each. When all the ears are examined make 
an estimate of about how much lost space there is altogether, 
and cut the score accordingly. 

Per Cent of Grain to Ear. 

The amount of shelled corn is an important point in an ear of 
corn. In most varieties of corn there are from 80 to 85 per cent 
of shelled corn to the ear. That is, in one hundred pounds of 
corn 80 to 85 per cent is shelled corn and from 20 to 15 per cent 
is cobs. It is important to have a high percentage of sheMed 
corn, for a high percentage of corn per ear means a big yield 
per acre. 

Rule. — Take five of the ears from the exhibit and weigh them 
carefully on a grocery scale. Then shell them, being careful not 
to lose any of the kernels. Weigh the cobs and subtract this 
from the weight of the five ears. The difference is the weight 
of the shelled corn. By dividing the total weight of the shelled 
corn by the weight of the five ears, the per cent of grain to ear 
is obtained. Por example : The five ears weigh 6j4 pounds, or 
TOO ounces; the five cobs weigh i pound, or 16 ounce; the 
shelled corn is 5^4 pounds, or 84 ounces. 84 divided by 100 
equals per cent of grain to ear. 

With the standard as 85, cut one point for each per cent less 
tlum standard. Thus the above example of 84 per cent would 
be marked 9 on the score card. 



rural school agriculture 7i 

Getting Total Score. 

Add the scores of the different characters and the number thus 
obtained wiU be the score of the exhibit. Compare the scores 
of all the samples and those with the highest scores are sure to 
be the best ones for seed. 

See appendix for list of bulletins on Corn. 



72 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



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Market Condition 10 

Form of Ear 15 

Size 5 

Variety Characteristics 10 

Tips 10 

Butts _ 10 
Kernels- Uniformity 5 


I— 1 
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Space Between Rows .3 
Between Kernels 
at Cob 2 

Per cent Grain to Ear 10 
Total 100 

Net Wt. of Shelled Grain... 



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RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 73 



CROP ROTATION AND FIELD MANAGEMENT 

CFNFRAL ^^^ ^^^(^ crops are divided into three classes accord- 
mg to the relation they bear to the condition and 
the fertility of the soil. These classes are: ist, 
. grain crops such as wheat, oats, flax, etc. ; 2d, grass 

crops such as Timothy, blue grass, clover, etc. ; 3d, cultivated 
crops such as corn, potatoes and beets. This arrangement is 
made because it is known that some crops do better follov.'ing 
certain crops than they do following others. For instance — 
wheat, oats and barley do not do as well after grass and clover 
as they do after corn. The grasses on the other hand follow the 
grain crops best because the seed-bed is fine and the grain offers 
protection to the young grass plants. Corn does better after 
grass or clover than it does after a series of grain crops because 
there is a large supply of plant food in the soil. The grass offers 
a good opportunity for manuring and corn is the very best crop 
for which to manure. Thus the grains, grasses and cultivated 
crop may be grown on fields so that each crop will prepare the 
land for the next crop. 

By rotating the crops on the fields the land is made richer, 
larger yields of all crops are obtained, the weeds are kept down, 
a better quality of grain is obtained, and a better farm business 
is established than where one class of crops is grown continually 
on the same field. Before it is possible to plant crops in rota- 
tion, it is necessary to divide the farm into a number of fields 
of the same size. The number of fields must be the same as the 
number of years through which the rotation is to continue. For 
example : A rotation for four years must have four fields for 
the rotation. In this way a certain crop, as corn, is planted on 
one field one year and on a dift'erent field the next year, and so 
on until four years have passed, when corn is again planted on 
the first field. 

For convenience in arranging a rotation a list of the classes 
of common crops is here given. 



74 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTUKE 



Grain Cr 


ops 


Cultivated C 


rops. 


Grass Crops & Clover 


Wheat 




Corn 




Timothy 


Oats 




Potatoes 




Bromus 


Barley 




Beets 




Red top 


Speltz 




Sorghum 




Mediam Red Clovei 


Rye 




Peas 
Beans 




Mammoth Clover 
Alsika Clover 
White Clovei 
Alfalfa 



A class called Catch crops or Soiling crops is used exten- 
sively in Minor rotations. The most important of these are the 
Root crops, Rape, Rye, Corn fodder, Soy-beans, Millet and the 
cereal crops used for annual pasturage. 



TWO KINDS 
OF ROTA- 
TIONS. 



A farm should be thought of as having three 
parts. These parts are (i.) the farmstead, 
which includes the buildings, the orchard, and 
the yards; (2). The inner -fields, which are small 
and are used for young stock and for temporary pastures. A 
rotation on the inner fields is called a minor (small) rotation; 
(3.) The outer fields, which are large and are used for grow- 
ing the market crops and for rotation pastures. The rotation 
on the outer fields is called major (large) rotation. The minor 
rotations in Figure 28 are lettered A, B, C, etc., while the major 
rotation fields are numbered I, II, III. 



ROTATION I^otation of crops means the arrangement of the 
grass crops, the cultivated crops and the grain crops 

in order, in such a way that one class does not occu- 

CRO PS" 

^ ^ py the same field more than two years in succession. 

But it does arrange to have one class follow another class. For 
example: A field grows corn in 1005. In 1906 instead of plant- 
ing corn again the field is seeded to wheat and the next year hay 
is grown. 

In arranging a rotation of any kind it is always a good plan 
to follow as closely as possible the rule that a grass crop should 
follow a grain crop and a cultivated crop may follow a grass or 
grain crop. A rule for applying mamu'e to the fields in the ro- 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE "/^ 

tation is as follows : Plan to keep enough stock to furnish enough 
manure to cover one of the fields each year, and plan if possible 
to apply the manure on the field where corn is to be planted. 

In planning for a rotation on any farm, first make a statement 
of the exact amount of each crop grown, the number of acres 
devoted to each crop, the amount of live stock kept, and the total 
acreage of the farm. Any other notes, as the amount of each 
crop used on the farm or sold, will also be useful. For example : 
In Fig. i8 (a typical i6o-acre western farm) the statement should 
be as follows : 

wheat, 1 08 acres, 1080 bushels, 150 bushels used, 930 bushels sold 

oats, 10 acres, 500 bushels, 410 bushels used, 90 bushels sold 

corn, 12 acres, 360 bushels, 200 bushels used, 160 bushels sold 

stover, 12 acres, 15 tons, 15 tons used 

millet, 8 acres, 16 tons, 16 tons used 

hay, 4 acres, 6 tons, 6 tons used 

pasture, 13 acres, 13 acres used 

Potatoes, I acre, 138 bushels, 75 bushels used, 63 bashels sold 

6 horses 

9 head cattle 3 sold 

14 hogs II sold 

87 chickens, 50 used, 12 sold 

From such a statement and an outline map of the farm, work 
out the number of fields of equal size according to the number 
of acres wanted for the crops. Keep in mind that best planned 
rotations have about one-third of the farm in cultivated crops, 
one-third in grain crops, and one-third in hay and pasture crops. 
It is not necessary that the crops be divided exactly on this basis, 
but these proportions should be kept in mind and form the basis 
upon which to figure the averages of the revised plan. 

It may be found that there is not stock enough to furnish ma- 
nure for an entire field each year. This is easily remedied, for 
more stock would be profitable and at the same time supply the 
required amount of manure to keep up the soil fertility. In the 
absence of the stock, clover and other legumes* must be used to 
keep up the fertility. In general, when planning for a rotation 



*Leguines — Such plants as have flowers like the Clover, Bean, etc., and 
store nitrogen in the soil. 



76 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

of crops, endeavor to make a Ijalanced system. One that will 
use the lalior and horses to best advantage the year around, pro- 
vide the needs lor the stock and the family, and make a good net 
income. 

- The following rotations and arrangements of 

helds illustrate the general plan both where the 
ROT AT TONS 

farm is large or small and the rotation long or 

short. These plans are not suited to all farm conditions, but the 
'>e'-e"al 1 Ian is such that other crops could take the place of some 
of those suggested and still be in rotation and keep up the fer- 
tility of the soil. These offer a basis ui)on which to work in 
planning any rotation. 

Figure 28 represents a farm of fort}' acres with a three-year 
major and a five-year minor rotation, besides a few acres in 
permanent pasture along the creek bottom. The major rotation 
consists of corn one year, oats one year, and clover one year. 
This simple rotation furnishes hay and grain sufficient to keep 
the stock during the winter. The permanent pasture, together 
with the annual pasture furnished b}^ the clover field after the 
hay is cut, gives the stock nearly enough feed for the summer. 
What other feed is needed may be furnished by the soiling crops 
grown in the minor rotation. Rye or rape may be sown with the 
corn at the last cultivation to furnish late fall and early spring 
pasture. The field is then sown to oats, with which clover seed 
is mixed. The clover lives over winter and furnishes hay the 
next year. In the fall or early next spring the clover is plowed 
and the corn planted. i\Ianure, as indicated by ( m) on the chart, 
is applied to the field and plowed under for the corn. A lane leads 
out to the field to allow the stock to reach any or all fields when 
desired. 

The iiiiiior rotation is made up of (1) potatoes, [2) speltz or 
other grain, (3) clover pasture, {4) fodder corn, (5) garden. 
The potatoes prepare the soil for the speltz or other grain. The 
grain serves as a nurse crop for the clover. The clover is nsed 
for pasture the next year. The spring" of the next year the clover 
is plowed under and the field is sown to fodder corn. In the fifth 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



77 



field the garden is planted. These five crops change places on the 
five fields each year, while the orchard remains permanently on 
the sixth. This rotation is intended to furnish the pasture for 
young stock and green cut crops for the stock when the pas- 
tures are short. 




Field I- 8 A 

/<?a7— Oa-ts 
no3— Clover 



TielJ ffl - 8 A 

IfOt-Ciove-r 

1'ioS-Oa.ts 
Hof— Clover 



- :7 ^i h\>^ - 




(lokClover-yiastuTe 
lloi-PodJeT- corn 
(SoB-Ga-TdeT-* 
iqoq-Pola-loet 



Field D-''fA 

Wt-rodde-r-CoTn 
1^07-&a.Tden 
ISoB-PotatoeS 
IHOS-Sreltz. 



Field E-''f4 
IS0t-O.*Taey\ 
IHOI-Potatoes 
lSo8-3h«ltz 
lies- Clover- ha stu,T« 
1110-podacT- co-rr^ 



Ty^\^ F-)U 
PeTTnanent 



Fig. US. Shows plan of a farm of 40 acres with major and a minor rota- 
tion suited to small farms. 



A MEDIUM SIZED FARM. 



Figure 29 represents a farm of 120 acres, arranged for a five 
year major rotation, a four year minor rotation, and a farmstead 
of about eight acres. The major rotation is made longer in this 



78 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 









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Fig. 20. Represents a 120 acre farm with a seven year major and 
four year minor rotation. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 79 

case because the farm is' larger. The farm will carry more stock 
than the 40-acre farm, and more stock requires more pasture in 
summer and more fora.e^e in winter. It is also supposed that 
grain raising is still profitable, and for this reason two fields are 
provided for grain. If two grain fields w^ere not wanted the 
fields could be made larger and a four-year rotation made by 
dropping out one field of grain. 

The five-year rotation provided in the figure, consists of corn, 
wheat, hay, pasture and oats or barley or other grain. These 
crops are all grown every year, but not upon the same fields. In 
this case the corn prepares the soil for wheat. Wheat is a good 
nurse crop for the hay. The grass seed should in this case be 
clover, six pounds, and timothy, eight pounds, mixed and plantefl 
with the wheat. The first year after the wheat the hay would 
be mostly clover, but the next year the pasture would be largely 
timothy. Clover usually dies out after the second year unless it 
is allowed to seed itself. After the hay is cut on field III, the 
stock could be turned into that field and the pasture in field IV 
plowed up for the grain which is to follow the next year. Field 
V could also be pastured after the grain had been removed. It 
should then be manured and plowed for the corn to be planted 
the next year. Plowing with Ihis rotation would be required 
on but two fields each year. This would greatly lessen the work 
and be sufficient to keep most soils in a good, mellow condition 

The minor rotation calls for four fields and consists of fodder 
corn, roots, oats and clover. In this case the clover field is the 
only one plowed each year. The corn land is disced preparatory 
to planting the roots. The digging of the root crops prepares 
the land for the oats. Manure in this rotation is applied to the 
clover sod and plowed under for the corn. 



AN OLD FARM REVISED. 

Figure 30 represents two plans of the same farm, one (A) 
before any rotation was planned and (B) after a rotation has 
been planned and the fields arranged accordingly. The farni 
plan was revised by a student in the School of Agriculture, St. 



8o RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Anthony Park, Minn. A comparison is not necessary, except to 
call attention to the great difference in the arrangenienc of fields, 
the irregularity in the size of the fields, and how in (A) wheat 
must follow on some parts of the farm year after year. 

In planning this farm and working out a rotation, it is sup- 
])osed that grain raising is to form a good share of the farm 
business for some years to come, but that the stock is to be in- 
creased so as to use on the farm a large part of the other crops 
grown. 

The major mtation. Figure 30, begins with corn on field I, 
wheat on II, hay on III. pasture on VI, corn on VII, wheat on 
\', and any kind of grain, as flax, barley, oats or wheat on IV. * 
The following year the crops would be sown on the next fields 
in their respective order, e.g., wheat on I, hay on II, etc. It 
should be understood that arranging for grain in a rotation does 
not mean lliat nny one g'rnin must hi' planted, for nil grains are 
sown in the same manner and have about the same general effect 
on the soil. Therefore, wheat could be sown on one-half of 
the field and Ijarley on the other half without interfering with 
the rotation. With this rotation plowing is necessary onl\ on 
three fields each year. This greatly reduces the labor and cost 
of production. Fields \'l and H are plowed for the corn and 
field V is plowed for wheat. The other fields are disced and 
harrowed as occasion demands. Weeds will be very thoroughly 
cleared out with this rotation. What weed seeds develop in the 
grain fields will be eradicated when the corn, which follows, is 
cultivated, and what weeds gain headway in the hay and pasture 
fields will be killed in the corn fields that follow. 

The minor rotation is ]jlanned for four fields and consists of 
fodder corn, grain, clover and roots. This rotation requires 
that two fields be plowed each year. The clover is pastured in 
the early spring and plowed for the potatoes and roots just be- 
fore planting time, or it may be late fall plowed. Before plant- 
ing fodder corn, the field is manured and plowed. This places 
the manure for the crop that uses it best and does not make Vr.e 
snil so rich as to cause the urain to lodsfe. 



*This irrouiilarity lictween tho field immbers and the system followed in 
the rotation was necessary iu order to put the rotation into practice as soon 
as possible. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



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82 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTICAL EXERCISES 

To bring the subject before the pupils in a pract- 
ical way and in such manner that a lasting iui- 

i tLALriUK. pression will be given, the following exercises 

are suggested. 

I. TO BE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THE TEXT OF TIIF 
INTRODUCTION 

1. Illustrate by means of lOO seeds what the differen'.e is 
between the yields of the crops as indicated in the forw <rd. 
Thus : Give each pupil lOO kernels of wheat. Have them count 
out 32 and place them in a row. Then count out 13 mor^ and 
place in a row just beneath the ^^2. Then count out 14 v^oxt 
and place beneath the second row. Now explain that each ker- 
nel stands for a bushel of wheat and the number in each row 
stands for the yields per acre of Great Britain, the United States, 
and Minnesota. When this is done, have the pupils count out 
5 more and add to the Minnesota line, and explain that by sav- 
ing the best seed each year 5 bushels per acre may be added, in 
from three to five years, to the yields of wheat in Minnesota on 
every farm. 

2. Have pupils bring a few beans and a few kernels each of 
corn, wheat and oats. Let them hold one bean in the mouth 
for a few moments until the seed coat wrinkles. Then explain 
that the seed coat is a protection for the seed and holds the parts 
together. Now separate the halves of this same bean, thus 
showing the two cotyledons or primary leaves that are pushed 
to the surface when planted, also point out the minute plantlet 
at the end where the two halves are joined. With all this in 
mind, explain that the seed takes in water and the little plant 
uses the stored-up food while it is making roots and leaves. 

Cut lengthwise through kernels of corn, wheat and oats so as 
to show the germ in each. Also explain that the hull of the oat 
kernel is not a part of the seed but is the blossom of the o.it 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 83 

flower, which holds the seed and forms an extra protection. Have 
pupils separate the two hulls and take out the seed 

3. Germinate a few seeds of wheat, peas, beans and corn in 
a box of moist sand. When up about two inches take a few plants 
of each kind and point out the difference between the seeds that 
have only one part and those that have two parts, also the way 
the little plants from these seeds send roots into the soil and 
leaves into the air. 

4. Provide two boxes of sand and allow them to become thor- 
oughly dry. In each box plant 10 seeds each of w^heat and .;f 
corn that are taken from the same bin or ear. Water one box 
regularly but allow the other to remain dry. When the seeds 
have germinated in the moist box take some seeds from cacn 
box and point out that moisture is necessary for germination, 
as illustrated by the failure of the seeds in the dry box to ger- 
minate. 

Illustrate by examining the seeds that have germinated, that 
the stored-up food is nearly all gone, that the little plantlet ha- 
grown and only the seed coat is left. Thus the stored-up food 
has been used to make the new growth. 

5. To show that freezing, when there is much moisture in i!ie 
seed, will kill it, allow some wheat, oats anci corn to soak in a 
glass of water for about half a day. Then take the seeds out 
of the water and put them out of doors where they will 
freeze. After freezing place the seeds between two pieces of 
blotter or in sand for germination. Keep them moist and notice 
iMV iailurc: to gennn'iate. 

6. Select from wheat 25 of the largest, heaviest, plumocst 
kernels, also 25 of the smallest, lightest, most shrunken kernels. 
Plant these in sand at opposite ends of a box and note the dif- 
ference in vigor of growth and size of plants. Explain the ■ dif- 
ference on the basis of the amount of food material and the orig- 
inal stunted condition of the little plant in the seed. The plants 
from the good seed will sprout first and best, will be stronger, 
larger and a darker green. 

7. Procure a quart measure and a small grocei:y scales or bal- 
ance and have some of the pupils bring a quart or more of wheat, 



54 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

oats and corn, also other grains if possible. Pour one of the 
grains into the quart measure until it is heaping full, then -with 
a ruler resting firmly on the rim push oil the grain, leaving the 
measure level full. Weigh the measure and grain, then deduct 
the weight of the measure. Multiply the net weight of the grain 
by 32, the number of quarts in a bushel. The result will be the 
weight per bushel of the grain. Do this several times, and if 't 
weighs the same every time the test is accurate. If not, average 
the tests. 

8. As far as practicable show the pupils the different grades 
of grain, not necessarily, the commercial grades, but grains of 
different quality, good and poor. Also in these samples pc/uit 
-out the characters of the score cards, giving an idea of the vAa- 
tive score of each sample. 

II. TO BE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITB THE WHEAT TEST. 

1. Procure mature wheat plants if possible. If not possible, 
pull up stubble and get straw. With these, show the pupils the 
different parts of the plant, as the joints or nodes, the intern jde, 
the leaves and sheath, the roots and the method of branchin^j; or 
stooling just below the ground. 

2. Procure from the fields, the farmer or by mail, heads and 
grains of the different types of wheat and pin them on a paste- 
board with their names. Call the attention of the pupils to the 
difference as shown by the samples and explained in the text. 

3. Illustrate on the blackboard how the broadcast seeder scat- 
ters the grain at all depths while the drill puts it all in at an even 
depth. This can be done by drawing a line on the blackboard 
for the surface of the ground and making small dots with col- 
ored chalk at various depth to illustrate a broadcast seeder and 
at an even depth (about two inches below the ground line) to 
illustrate the drill. A sketch of the spouts and shoes of the 
drill would also help. 

4. Have each pupil pick out by hand the largest, plumuest 
and best shaped kernels from a handful each of wheat, oats and 
corn. Then explain the value of the selected seed, upon the 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 85 

bases of more stored-up food, a stronger germ, a larger genn, 
and a better chance for such seeds to withstand unfavorable con- 
ditions, according to lessons in the Introduction. 

5. Get samples of high grade and low grade flour, bran and 
shorts, and display in bottles in similar fashion to the types of 
wheat. Explain that these are obtained by the miller and tl\at 
the best flour is exclusively the white stored-up food ; the bran 
is the seed coat; the low grade flour has some particles of very 
fine bran in it, and the shorts are largely the stored-up food cf 
the seed near the seed coat together with some of the bran. To 
get these and other products from the wheat the miller grinds 
and regrinds, and sifts and bolts the wheat with a little better 
care each time. 

III. TO BE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THE OATS TEXT. 

1. As in the case of wheat, procure mature plants of oat=^. 
point out the parts and compare the wheat, making an especial 
point of the method of tillering or branching to show that more 
than one stalk may come from one seed. Show the joints below 
the ground. 

2. Secure the products of oats, as oatmeal, rolled oats, etc., 
also ground oats for stock food. Display these in bottles as 
indicated for wheat. 

3. Procure as many types of oats as is possible and exhibit 
them on a board similar to the method described for wheat. 

4. Have each pupil select the best seeds from a handful of the 
grain brought in by themselves. Call attention to the fact that 
tame oats have a beard similar to wild oats, that two seeds are 
sometimes found held together in one hull, but that one of the 
supposed seeds is generally only an empty hull. Point out the 
difiference between the selection. Also point out the character? 
of the points brought out in the score card and give each pr.pil 
an idea of the relative score of his or her sample as selected. 
Pick out a handful of the very best oats you can find and use 
them to illustrate what good oats are like. 



80 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



IV. TO BE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THE CORN TEXT. 

I Get a corn plant and point out to the pupils the joints and 
space between the joints, the leaf and sheath, the tassels and 
the flowers in the tassel, the ear and shank, the roots and where 
they come from (the joints), the butt, tip and middle of the ear, 
and the rudimentary branches at each joint above ground, also 
at which joint the ear is produced. 

2. Get as many types of ears representing the types of corn 
as possible and display them as suggested for the types of wiieat 
and oats. Also call attention to the varieties or the types that 
are suited to Minnesota and to the locality. 

3. Secure as many products (meal, hominy, corn and cob meal, 
etc. ) of the corn as possible and explain from what parts of the 
seed they are made, and the uses of each. 

4. Secure from the farmers several ears of corn which show 
points of the score card, and explain the good and bad points 
of each ear. For example: Mixed seed on an ear, bad tips and 
butts, large space between rows, large cobs and short, small ker- 
nels, a very tapering ear, etc. 

5. Have the pupils shell at home five ears of good corn and 
bring a pint to school. From this have each one separate the 
longest, largest, best wedge-shaped kernels from the short ' t, 
roundest and poorest kernels. Then call attention to the [)ro- 
portion of good kernels as compared with the poor, and explain 
that the rounded, poorly-shaped ones can not be planted by ma- 
chines with the evenness that those of uniform wedge-shape can 
be planted. 

6. Get a well shaped ear of corn and illustrate to the pupils 
by shelling off the tip and butt kernels that that is the way to 
save seed corn. Experiments have proved that the crop from 
the tip and butt seed is not so good as from the middle kernels 
of the ear. Plants from tip and butt kernels usually produce 
small, poorlv filled ears. 



RUEAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



87 



V. TO IIUSTRATE THE WAY CROPS ARE CHANGED FROM 
ONE FIELD TO ANOTHER IN CROP ROTATION 

Sketch Fig. 31 on the blackboard and explain that each rect- 
angle represents the same three fields on a certain farm. 1 1'C 
rotation begins with corn in the top row. Oats and clover arc 




Oats 

(seeded to 

clever) 


Clover 


Corn 



Clover 


Corn 


Oats 

(seeded to 



Fig. 31. Shows three plans of the same fields illustrating the method of 
changing the crops on the fields in rotating. 

grown on the other two fields. Now drop to the middle rect- 
angle, which represents the next year, (1907). Point out the 
fact that corn is replaced by oats, that the clover seeded in 1906 
occupies the oats field of the year before and that the 1906 clover 
field is plowed up and corn planted. In a similar way explain 
the lower rectangle as representing the same fields the next year 
1908. Make other illustrations and have the pupils try to work 
out a similar Dlan. 



88 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



COOKING CONTEST 

All exhibits must be made by contestant and after her owr 
recipe. Winners of the first three prizes in each class in ilie 
county contest will be permitted to rebake to exhibit in state con- 
test in same classes in which prizes were won in county con- 
test. 




Fig. 32. Cooking Class Minnesota Scliool of Agiicultiire. 

Prizes will be offered for best exhibits in the following 

classes : See appendix. 

Class I White Bread. 

Class II Graham Bread. 

Class III Steamed Corn Bread. 

Class IV Sponge cake. 

Class V Chocolate cake. 

Class VI Cocoanut cake. 

Class VII Fruit cake. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 89 



COOKING 

Each person entering the contest may use her or his own 
recipes. 

Each exhibit must be accompanied by the recipe used, written 
in full, with directions showing how it was used. 

WHITE AND GRAHAM BREAD. 

Outline for making written report on bread : 

1. Recipe. 

2. Manner of making. 

a. Kind of yeast used. 

b. Was a sponge used in making? 

c. How long was dough risen before molding into leaves? 
How long risen the second time? 

d. What was temperature of dough when set to rise? 

3. Was oven very hot when bread was put in to bake? 

4. How long baked? 

5. How cooled? 

a. Was it so placed that air might pass all about it, as v/hen 
laid across the top of a pan, or was it placed directly on a 
flat surface, covered with a cloth or not covered? 

CORN BREAD. 

Outline for making written report on corn bread : 

1. Recipe. 

2. Manner of putting materials together. 

3. How full were tins filled when put to steam? 

4. Was water boiling when bread was put to cook? 

5. How long steamed? 

BUTTER CAKES . 

Outline for making report : 

1. Recipe'. 

2. Manner of making. 

a. Were the butter and sugar creamed? 



90 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

b. How were the egg's added — were they beaten separately 
and folded in after liquid and flour were mixed, or were 
they added unbeaten, one at a.^time, to batter and thor- 
oughly beaten with the dough after each portion of flour 
and liquid was incorporated? 




Fig. 33. A Handy Kitchen table. 

c. How were liquid and flour mixed? 

d. When was baking powder added? 

3. Tell whether heat of oven was medium or hoi. 

4. How long baked? 

SPONGE CAKE. 

Outline for making report : 
I. Recipe. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 9I 

Tell how eggs were used — whether beaten separately or t.,- 

gether. 
Tell when liquid was added. 
Tell when and how tlour was added. 

If eggs were separated, when and how were whites adnea? 
Heat of oven. 
Length of time baked. 



FRUIT CAKE. 

Outline for making report : 

1. Recipe. 

2. Manner of making. 

a. How to cream butter and sugar. 

b. When and how were eggs added. 

c. When and how add flour and liquid. 

d. How prepare fruit, citron, etc., and when add. 

e. When add baking powder. 

3. Tell whether steamed or baked. 

4. H baked, heat of oven. 

s. Times of baking or steaming. 



SCORE CARD FOR WHITE BREAD. 



1. General appearance ' 5 

2. Proper baking (color and thickness of crust) 10 

3. Odor ^0 

4. Flavor 3° 

5. Grain and Texture 20 

6. Lightness 10 

7. Crumb 10 

8. Color 5 

TOTAL 100 
GENERAL APPEARANCE. 

The loaf should be well rounded over the top, not extending 
over the sides of the pan or flattened on top, evenly baked on 
all sides. 

PROPER BAKING. 

Proper baking is indicated by the color and thickness of the 
crust. The crust should be of a chestnut brown all over the loaf 
and about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. The center of 
the loaf must also be well done, not soggy. 



9'.2 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

ODOR. 

A sweet and nutty odor indicates the highest degree of excel- 
lence in bread. Bread which has no perceptible odor or an un- 
apetizing odor shows a stage progressing toward sourness, puty- 
ric and ropy fermentation, any one of which, when reacbed. 
gives unmistakable evidence of an inferior loaf. 

FLAVOR. 

The flavor or taste of bread depends upon the quality of the 
flour and yeast, as well as the temperature at which dough, or 
sponge and dough, is set and kept while rising, and length of 
time allowed to rise. The flavor should be sweet and nutty. 

GRAIN AND TEXTURE. 

Grain and texture depends largely upon the temperature and 
time of rising. The cut surface of the loaf should be evenly 
honey-combed, the holes should be small, the bread when pressed 
with the finger should seem elastic, there being no impression 
left when the finger is removed. 

LIGHTNESS. 

A light, well-risen loaf is, when baked, about twice the size 
of the dough when put in the pan to rise. An over-risen loaf is 
likely to be very porous and rather crumbly and dry. 

CRUMB. 

The crumb of bread should present a glossy, silky mass of 
unbroken cells. Dry and crumbly, or a dark and damp crumb in- 
dicates bread of inferior quality. 

COLOR. 

Color refers to the inside of the loaf, and may be of a creamy 
whiteness or a snowy white, depending on whether unbleached 
or bleached flour was used in makinsf the bread. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 93 



SUGGESTIONS. 



The size and kind of pan best suited to bread baking is four 
inches across the bottom, three and one-half inches high, and 
nine or more inches long. A loaf in a pan of this size and in an 
oven of proper temperature will bake in from fifty to sixty min- 
utes. Single pans of this size are considered best because the 
loaf is thoroughly baked in the center as well as on the outside, 
and consequently keeps better and is more wholesome. 

To attain best results in bread making, these points must be 
kept in mind : ( i ) Good yeast and plenty of it, good strong flour, 
and proper and even temperature through the entire time of 
rising. (2) Compressed yeast is considered best because of its 
strength, that is, it contains a large quantity of vigorous yeast 
plants which if given the right temperature, seventy-five degrees 
F,* with moisture and flour, grow rapidly and aid in the pro- 
duction of perfect bread. (3) It is a known fact that bread made 
by the quick process (that made and baked in five or six hours) 
has a greater food value and, to an educated taste, a better flavor, 
than that which is made by a long process. (4) If, for any rea- 
son, the compressed yeast is not used, the next best method is to 
use a home made yeast and a sponge, for example: 
I quart liquid (half water, half milk) 
I cup of fresh liquid yeast 

4 level teaspoonfuls of salt and flour enough to make a stiflf 
batter. (5) When set to rise the batter should be seventy-five 
degrees F.* 

Place the vessel containing the sponge, where this temperature 
will be maintained, and at the end of three hours the sponge should 
be light; add flour enough to make a stiff dough, so that when 
kneaded into a loaf it will not stick to either the hands or the 
board. Let rise until double in size, which usually requires 116 
hours. Knead into loaves, let rise again one hour, or until double 
in size, and bake. Great care must be exercised not to allow the 
dough to become cooler than seventy-five degrees F,* and it is 

* Fahrenheit. 



94 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

of equal importance that it is not over heated as this injures the 
i^avor as well as the appearance of the bread. 

For baking bread the oven should be hot enough so there will 
be small specks of brown on the bread in ten minutes after plac- 
ing it in the oven. 

GRAHAM bread: Scorc card same as for white bread. 

STEAMED CORN BREAD: Score Card: 

Lightness 35 

Flavor 30 

Texture 25 

Moisture 10 

TOTAL 100 

Lightness — not heavy : — Should have risen to a little less tiian 
double original amount of batter. 

Flavor: Should be that of well-cooked corn-meal^sweet and 
rich. 

Texture : The pores or holes should be rather small and the 
bread should be elastic to the touch. 

Moisture : The loaf should be moist but not doughy or soggy 
when crushed in the fingers ; also, neither dry or crumbly. 

Corn bread must be thoroughly cooked to bring out the best 
flavor of the corn and to render it wholesome. If steamed in 
cans or moulds five inches in diameter, 3^S hours should be 
allowed. The water should be boiling when the bread is put to 
cook, and not allowed to stop boiling until the 3I2 hours have 
passed. A dry, tasteless steamed corn loaf is usually due to an 
excess of flour. The batter should be very thin as a given 
amoinit of corn meal will absorb an equal amount of water. A 
sticky, doughy steamed corn loaf is usually due to too little cook- 
ing. 

Corn is an American grain, wholesome and appetizing when 
properly cooked, and should be more generally used than it now 
is. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 95 

SPONGE cake: Score card: 

Lightness 30 

Texture 25 

Tenderness 15 

Baking 20 

General appearance 10 

TOTAL 100 

Lightness : Indicated by pressing the cake with the finger. 
If Hght the compression will disappear as soon as pressure is 
removed. 

Texture : Texture is indicated by the holes in the cake ; these 
should be rather small and of uniform size. 

Tenderness : The cake, when broken, should be tender and 
should break short rather than pull apart. 

Baking: Proper baking is indicated by a uniformity of color 
not burned or too light in color and not doughy or sticky. The 
crust should be rather thin. 

General appearance : Evenly risen, not conical in shape on 
top. A cake should never burst open on side or top and should 
not be shrunken from pan. 

Suggestions : In making sponge cake it is essential that the 
eggs be fresh, and be beaten until very light as it is upon the 
eggs that the lightness of the cake depends. Mix the flour with 
as little stirring as possible, and bake in a slow oven. If baked 
with too great heat the cake does not rise as it should and is 
likely to be tough. A sponge cake measuring nine or ten inches 
across the top and two and one-half to three inches thick should 
not bake less than thirty minutes and is better baked forty min- 
utes. 

CHOCOLATE CAKE: Scorc Card: 

Lightness 30 

Texture 25 

Moisture 5 

Tenderness 10 

Raking 20 

General appearance 10 



TOTAL 100 
This cake should be a loaf cake and not frosted. 



g6 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

cocoANUT CAKE : Scorc card : 

Same as for chocolate except that in place of general appear- 
ance in score card would be cocoanut filling. 

fruitcake: Score card : 

Lightness 35 

Texture lO 

Moisture lo 

Baking 25 

Flavor 10 

General appearance 10 

TOTAL 100 
The Fruit cake should not be frosted. 

In making cakes containing much butter, stir the butter with 
a fork or spoon until of a creamy consistency before adding any 
of the sugar ; then add it a little at a time, stirring constantly 
and when all is added, stir the mixture until it is light and creamy. 
The liquid and the flour should be added alternately and thor- 
oughly mixed each time before adding more. This stirring and 
beating makes the cake lighter by adding a'ir. If the eggs are 
to be beaten separately and then put in the cake the yolks are as 
well added with the flour and liquid but the stiffly beaten whites 
should be carefully folded in at the very last. This method of 
putting in the eggs gives a lighter, dryer, more fea- 
thery cake than does adding the eggs whole, one at a time, to 
the cake mixture while adding the liquid and flour. A cake 
made by the last method has a finer grain, is more moist and 
more tender than when made by the first method. The oven 
may be somewhat hotter for a butter cake than for a sponge 
cake. An excess of flour renders a cake dry and bready. When 
baking powder is used in cake-making, it should be added with 
the last of the flour. 

Heat of oven for sponge cake : Test by placing a piece of 
white paper in the oven and allowing it to remain five minutes, 
when it should be a light yellow color. 

Heat of oven for butter cake : Place white paper in oven same 
IS for sponge cake. In five minutes it should be a dark yellow. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 97 

Heat of oven for fruit cake : Heat between that of sponge 
cake and butter cake. 

Heat of oven for bread : A loaf of bread should show specks 
slightly browned over the surface after having been in the oven 
ten minutes. 

For bulletins on Domestic Science see appendix. 



qS rural school agriculture 

SEWING CONTEST 

Prizes are offered for the best exhibits in sewing in the follow- 
ing classes: See appendix for prizes. 
Class I Plain Work Apron 
Class II Fancy Apron 
Class III Over-hand Patch 
Class IV Stockinet Darning- 
Class V Dressed Doll 

PLAIN Use any suitable colored material, as gingham. The 
WORK checked gingham is easiest to work on as the checks 
APRON . act as a guide for turning hems, etc. 

In making the work apron, two widths of material of the 
desired length should be taken, allowing three inches for a hem. 
One width must be gored a very little for the front. The other 
width should be cut in two and se\\ ed to each side of the gored 
width. In sewing, take a l)ack-stitcl' with every needleful. .Vfter 
it is sewed, overcast each seam. 

The l)and for the apron should be 2] j inches wide. Gather 
the apron across the top and pull gathers in place. Find the 
center of the apron and the center of the band and sew the 
gathers on by placing each gather. Hem the other side of the 
band over onto the \\rong side of the apron. 

^ -^ Make of fine white material. Batiste and Persian 
Lawn are alwavs pretty. Use rolled hems, instead of 

J P T? f) '\J . L ^ 

' the common hems, and hemstitching as much as 

possible for trimming. 

This apron should be made in a length to come just below 
the knees, allowing for a three inch hem. Make a rolled hem 
on each side. Then turn your hem three inches, draw six threads 
for hemstitching and make a hemstitch hem. 

In making the band for the apron, make it long enough to go 
around the waist, making ties three-fourths of a vard long and 
three and one half inches wide. Make rolled hems on the sides 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE gg 

and a hemstitch hem an inch wide at the end. Make fine gather- 
ing stitches pulling each gather in place. Find the center of 
the apron and the center of the band and sew on by using a back- 
stitch, hemming the other side of the band over onto the wrong- 
side. 

^Tzr-T^T-T- ^A-n Use some checked or figured material and ex- 

OVERHAlSD . , , ,, r , , 

P-iTrM '■^^ ^ match the figures or checks. Cut the patch 

one-half inch larger than the hole, which should 
be square or oblong. Cut the corners of the hole diagonally one- 
eighth of an inch. Crease one edge of the patch and the side of 
the hole where it is to be joined. Place the right sides together, 
having the folded edges even and the checks exactly matched. 
Baste, and overhand that side of the patch. Remove the basting, 
crease, and overhand the remaining sides in the same way. Over- 
cast both sides of the seam and' also around the edge of the 
model. 

STOCKINET 

DARNIA G. Take a stocking with a hole in it, about ^ inch 
in diameter and darn it as follows : Baste the part of the stock- 
ing v>hich contains the hole on a piece of cardboard to prevent its 
being stretched or drawn out of shape, and remove all worn 
threads. Run a thread around the hole about one-fourth inch 
from the edge. Form the \\arp threads, which should be very 
close together, by bringing the darning cotton up thiough the 
loop stitch at one edge and down through the stitch on the oppo- 
site edge. All of these stitches should be taken up so that they 
will not ravel back after the darn is completed, and so that there 
will be no roughness on the right side of the stocking A small 
loop of the darning cotton should be left at each end to allow for 
shrinkage in washing. When the warp threads are all in, begin 
at the lower right hand side of the hole to fill in the woof threads, 
taking up the alternate threads of the warp. In the next row 
only those threads missed in the preceding row are taken up. 
The woof threads should be put in as close together as possible. 
Continue in this same manner until the hole is filled. Both the 
warp and the woof threads should be carried at least one-quarter 



100 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

of an inch beyond the hole in the stocking, so that the darning 
may be tirni and nut pnll away from the worn edges. 

^^^^ Four garments are to be made for the doll: Chem- 
DRLSSED . , •" , . , , ..-, . , 

ise, th'awers, sku't, and dress, i hey may be made 

DULL. ^^,£ ^j^y material desired. In dressing the doll, use 

good materials because your stitches will look much better than 

on poor material. In all sewing, use hne thread and fine 

needles. The doll should be not less than fifteen inches long. 

In making" undergarments, it shows good taste to use hemstitch 

and a fine lace edging. In making the dress, make it plain and 

beautiful. In judging the work, the stitches will count as one 

of the strongest points. 

Xo garments should be starched because it spoils the looks of 
the stitches, neither should they be washed if it is possible to 
avoid doing so. Stitches are never so pretty after the garment 
is washed. 

There have been no bulletins ])ublished on sewing but there 
are several books available, a list of which may be obtained by 
writing to Mr. R. S. lieardsley, 300 Wabash Ave, Chicago 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE lOI 



FRUIT CONTEST 



APPLE Exhibits must have been grown on home farm of 

CONTEST, contestant, and selected by him. 

moths. 

A plate of apples shall consist of four specimens. 

A plate of crabs shall consist of eight specimens. 

Exhibits will be judged by size, condition, color, uniformity 
and neatness and taste in arrangement. 

Liberal prizes will be ofit'ered in the following classes : See 
page 

Class I Best plate of Hibernal. '' 

Class 11 Best plate Of Wealthy. 

Class III Best plate of Northwestern Greening. 

Class IV Best plate of any variety. 

Class V Best plate of Seedling apple. 

Class VI Best collection of winter apples. 

Class VII Best plate of crabs. 



102 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



APPLES 



[Minnesota produces each year about 500,000 bushels of apples. 
Not all of these by any means go to market ; a large portion of 
them are used, as they should be, by the farmer and his family 
A good many are raised in southern Minnesota for market 
These are mostly Duchess, Wealthy and Northwestern Green- 
ing, and also a few kinds of crabs. Apple growing in Minne- 
sota has been attempted from the first settlement of the state. 
The early settlers were largely from apple growing districts and 
tried to use the same varieties and methods of culture here that 
they had used at their homes, with the result that few trees lived 
to produce fruit. 

Apples of the hardy kinds, such as Duchess, and Hiber- 
nal are easy to grow and bear fruit quite soon if they are given 
about the same care as is given corn. 

About twenty-five years ago many Russian apples were 
brought over here and from among these and seedlings that 
some of the pioneers grew, have come the varieties we see at 
the fairs and county exhibitions each year. 

The apple is a native of northern Europe and Asia. Its 
botanical name is Pyrus mains.* The crab apples have descended 
from the wild Pyrus baccata of Siberia. These two kinds often 
become mixed when grown near each other and some of our 
apples show the characters of both. The native crab, familiar 
to many for the beauty of its flowers in spring and the hard, 
green and bitter fruit in fall, is not adapted to cultivation be- 
cause it blights badly, even when wild, and would spread the 
disease in an orchard. 

r~j~, jr> I'"" England the term "crab" is applied to small 

apples. In America we mean bv the term "crab" 

A PPJ /7 9 • 

■ Pyrus baccata or its hybrids. It is characterized 
by smoother and more wiry growth than the apple. It has nar- 



*Pynis Mains is tbe scientific name for a kind of an apple. Tlie Pynis 
is the genns or large group to which all apples belong. The mains is a 
smaller group (the species) of a particular class of apples. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE IO3 

rower and thinner, longer-stenimed leaves, which are not very 
woolly. The seed is enclosed in very hard, close-fitting hulls 
and the calyx falls off when the fruit is ripe. 

^^^ ^ The leaves of the true apple are woolly on the 

underside and have a woolly calyx and flower 

stem. The fruit is of various shapes and sizes but always holds 

the calyx, i.e., the parts of the flower, on the end of the fruit. 

The leaves are also thicker and broader than those of the crab. 

r.,„„ The apple does not come true from seed. That 

SEEDLIA Go : . • Ui. i i. ^t j r • a 

IS, you might plant the seeds of a nice red 

Wealthy and get just as many dift'erent kinds of apples as there 
were seeds. Some might be like the Wealthy and some perhaps 
would look nothing like it. This is the way, though, that new 
varieties are originated. One of the seeds planted might pro- 
duce a tree that would bear fruit better in many w^ays than the 
one from which the seed came. 

Since apples do not come true from seed Hke 
carrots and onions, desirable kinds must be 
propagated by taking a piece of one tree and attaching it to 
another or to a small seedling root, in such a way and at such 
a time that it may grow and produce a tree like the original one 
That is how we have thousands of trees of one variety offered 
for sale. They have not grown from seed but have been budded 
or grafted onto roots of seedling apple trees. The work of 
grafting is done in the winter from January to March. Bud- 
ding is done in August. 

. „ _ By budding is meant the taking of one bud 
from a tree and placing it in the bark of another 
tree and then as it grows the other parts of the tree or seerlhng 
are cut away, leaving the tree or branch produced from the bud. 
There is not space in this bulletin to go ii-j^to detail about the 
culture, planting, grafting, etc., of apples and plums but these 
things may be found in detail in some of the bocks and bulle- 
tins mentioned at the end of this article. 



I04 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

,^^^ „ Not many insects or diseases trouble the apple in 

Minnesota. Sometimes in July or June the leaves 

DLlijtil . jj^ |-|-|^, ^Qp q£ |.|^g trees or on the new growth turn 

brown as though they had been burned. This is what is meant 
by "fire blight." It is caused by the growth of disease germs 
in the wood of the Ijranch. If the tree is badly affected it is best 
to cut out the tree as the disease will spread. If there is not 
much of it present, cut out and burn the twigs affected, at once. 
Some varieties are more likely to blight than are others. 

Sometimes we see rough blotches on the skin of apples. 
This is due to a disease called scab. It may be pre- 
vented by using Bordeaux mixture, much diluted, in the spring. 

This insect is the cause of the wormy apples we 
see in the fall and winter. In the spring, just as 
xMwirj. ^YxQ blossom falls, the moth lays eggs in the calyx 

of the apple. When the eggs hatch the larvae or worm, eats 
into the apple, where it stays until time for it to change to a 
moth ; it then eats its way out, spins a cocoon on the side of the 
barrel or box in which the apple is stored, lives in this until it 
becomes a moth. Picking up of the fallen fruit and destroying 
it helps to keep the moth in check. Hogs will eat the early 
fallen fruit that is of no value, and thus destroy the codling 
moths. 

rvi-TrniTrnA^ "'^ plate of apples usually consists of four 
specimens ; one of crabs of eight specimens. 
In selecting these the very best colored, nicest-looking fruits 
should be carefully jMcked, taking pains to leave all of the apple 
stem on each specimen. If there is any "bloom" on the fruit, be 
careful not to rub this oft". 

The fruits should each be wrapped in clean dry paper, (tissue 
or soft newspaper,) and placed in a box or basket in such a w^ay 
as not to allow any bruising of the skin, either before or during 
transit. Some varieties as Longfield, show the effect of a slight 
bruise very quickly. 

For further information see list of publication page 



VEGETABLE 



RURAL- SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I05 

VEGETABLE CONTEST 

Contestants should select a good, rich, well 
drained piece of sTonnd, plant and cultivate the 
L UA 1 iio 2 . crop themselves, then select the very best spec- 

imens for their exhibit. Exhibits will be judged: 1st, on gen- 
eral ap])earance ; 2nd, market condition; 3rd, uniformity. L'b- 
eral prizes will be oiTered in the following classes: — See pag 
Class I Potatoes, best early (i peck.) 
Class II Potatoes, best late (i peck.) 
Class III Onions, Yellow Globe, best }/> peck. 
Class IV Onions, Red Globe, best >2 peck. 
Class V Carrots for table use (6 specimens.) 
Class \'I Carrots for stock (6 specimens.) 



lo6 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 



POTATOES 

Potato growing in Minnesota is an important indnstry. From 
16,000,000 to 20,000,000 bnshels are grown annually, of which 
from one-third to one-half are shipped out of the state. They 
are shipped east and south, where they are used for food and 
also for seed. 

ST 4RCH IS Some years more potatoes are raised than can 

r-oz-^ir be readily sold and then the price is likelv to 
MAJJh r K( ) M . , xr 1 1 ^ 

be low. it they are not worth more than 

POT ATOP S ' 

■ twenty cents a bushel they may be profitably 

made into starch. This industry helps to keep up the price of 
potatoes, as the grower knows he can always have some sort of 
market for his crop. 

Potatoes are grown usually by cutting up 

the tuber or potato, leaving one or two 

eyes to the piece, and planting these pieces. The tuber might be 

likened to a branch of a tree (except that it grows underground) 

and the "eyes" to the buds found on the branch. 

POTATO True potato seed is found in a little ball on the top 
SEED : of the vine. These may be found in most any potato 

field, after the plants are through blooming. If the seed from 
these balls is saved and planted early in the spring, potato plants 
will grow and form small tubers. If these tubers are saved in 
the fall and planted the next year, full-sized potatoes will re- 
sult. This is the w'ay new varieties of potatoes have been ob- 
tained. As many varieties as there are seeds in the ball may 
result, none however, may be any better than those we aln:;ady 
know. There is always a chance of something better, and that 
is why so many people plant the seed from the seed balls. 

This is a disease caused bv bacteria, that affects 

rO I A I O , . . , ' . , 

the potato vmes causmg them to turn brown and 

. j-jj.^, ^^p j^ frequently destroys entire fields. In 

1845-46 this disease destroyed the potato crops of Europe and 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I07 

America. A man in New York State named Rev. Chauncey Good- 
rich, thought that if some of the wild potatoes growing in the 
mountains of Chili in South America (where the ancestors of 
our potato were first found) were brought here and planted and 
mixed with the kinds that blighted, perhaps a new variety which 
did not blight so badly might be originated. He did this and 
from some of the seedlings he raised has come the potatoes we 
know. He did not entirely prevent the attacks of blight. We 
therefore, have to use Bordeaux mixture sometimes to prevent it 
injuring the potato vines and thus sometimes causing potato 
rot, because the plant is weakened by the blight. If the spray- 
ing for blight is to be effective it should begin before the blight 
has any foothold, say when the vines are about six inches high, 
and be repeated every two weeks the rest of the season. Paris 
green put in the Bordeaux mixture will at the same time destroy- 
many potato bugs. 

^ ^,..„ Potatoes do best on a rather light, sandy and warm 
T/JA/Jj • 

soil, especially if they are wanted for early use. Grown 
on sandy land they are usually cleaner and smoother than when 
grown on heavy land. In selecting the tubers for planting, size, 
shape and appearance should be taken into consideration for 
what you plant — that you are very likely to harvest, and we 
always want to harvest the best. 

POTATO 

SCAB: Sometimes we have scabby potatoes in a bin 

witli otlier g-ond ones. Those which are scabby are likely to 
spread the disease to the others and so all potatoes planted 
should be treated by soaking them in a solution of corrosive 
sublimate or formalin before planting. They should be thor- 
oughly cultivated during the summer until they are too large 
to work among. 

'sFT FCTION ^^^ yield of marketable potatoes may be in- 
creased by proper selection. In the fall when 
digging potatoes, save for seed the hills which 

PLANTIAG : j.|^^,g |.|^g largest number of tubers, of the kind 



I08 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

you desire. Continue doing this for several years and you will 
notice a marked improvement in your potato crop. 

^,,^^^„,^^^,^ Select one peck of smooth, sound, medium- 
EXHIBITION: . , .' , ,, , , . , , . 

sized, uniform, shallow-eyed and nice looking 

potatoes ; clean them thoroughly, being careful not to bruise the 

skin. Place in a neatly made box or basket and carry carefully 

to the place in which thev are to be exhil)ited. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE IO9 



ONIONS 



The onion is a native of South Western Asia and through long 
continued selection and cultivation has developed into large 
bulbs, sometimes producing as high as 800 or 1,000 bushel? per 
acre. It is a biennial (requires two years to produce seed) or 
sometimes a perennial. It belongs to the same family of plants 
as the lilies. It has no true stem, but a stem is represented by 
the base of the bulb. Sometimes instead of producing flowers 
a long stalk with a head of small bulbs is produced. 

Onion seeds are black, angular and flattish. Some kinds also 
produce cloves or small bulbs as well as seeds. These are the 
perennial kinds. The potato onion never seeds but is propagated 
by division of its bulbs. Onions vary in shape, size and color. 
The red and yellow globe onions probably find the readiest sale 

Onion sets are small onions planted in the spring in- 
^^^^" stead of seeds. Thev are grown bv sowing onion 

seed very thick in the row the latter part of Ma_\ 
These onions do not have a chance to grow large and in the -fall 
are pulled and stored the same as other onions. When set out the 
next spring they grow rapidly thus furnishing onions earlier than 
they can be grown from seed. 

tram's Sometimes onions are sown in hotbeds or the 

^ greenhouse early in the spring and then trans - 

planted to the open ground as soon as it is in 
ONlOrsJo : condition. These come to edible size very 

quicklv. Tender kinds are sometimes grown this way to ad- 
vantage. 

(^f-)jT Any good corn land is good for onions. Some hoed 

crop should precede onions as this will leave the 
land clean of weeds and it is difficult to grow onions 

OAyCAo . pj-j weedy land. 



no RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

coiyjfjQ Onion seed may be sown as early as the land can 
be worked and in rows about fifteen inches apart 
and covered one inch deep. Ninety per cent, of sfood 
^>j^L.Lj . onion seed should germinate if conditions are fav- 

orable. Thorough cultivation should be given as long as possi- 
ble, to keep the soil mellow and no weeds should be allowed to 
grow. Some onion seed is grown in Minnesota but most of it 
comes from Europe or California. 

r-^ r T T^^-r-, Scallions are onions, the tops of which, on 

account of poor seed, do not drop onto the 

ground as is the case when onions ripen properly. The tops may 

be ])ushed over and thus helped to ripen, but such onions are 

usually poor keepers. 

^ -, Onions may be stored in a cool dry place where 

there is a good circulation of air. They may also 
Oi\lUl\^^ ■ i^g frozen and kept frozen over winter. This 
causes them to become soft and they must be used soon to bj 
of any value. 

Take one half peck of medium-sized onions 
for the variety, having good color and shape, 
and perfectly sound. Remove all roots, tops and rough or un- 
sightly skin, and pack carefully. 



RURAL SCHOOL AGRICUL'lUKE III 



CARROT 



The carrot is a native of Europe ; it is a biennial, that is, the 
seed is planted one year and in the fall the root is taken up and 
stored. The next springy the root is planted out and from this 
comes a flower stock which produces seeds. 

Carrots have red, white, and yellow flesh and are grown both 
for table use and for stock food. 

Some kinds, such as Oxheart or Danvers are intended only 
for table use while others such as Mastodon grow much larger 
and coarser. They are not so good to cat and are called stock 
carrots. Seedsmen sell varieties recommended for table use and 
other varieties for stock food. 

Wild carrots do not have much root and they are of no value 
The plant itself is a bad weed. Under cultivation, however, it 
has developed a large root which is used for food. From ten to 
thirty tons of carrots may be grown per acre. ^ 

^^ Carrots are sometimes grown in greenhouses but 
there is not much demand for them as the roots 
are so easily stored over winter. 

^ To raise carrot seed set out the roots in the spring 

f /I f? 7? 0> T lo 

in rows two feet apart and gather the seed as it 

ohhD . ripens. .Vll will not ripen at once. 

_ -,,. Bulk is wanted for stock while qualitv is the 

ami for table use. So from the stock varieties 

select the largest, best-looking, and most uniform half dozen 

specimens. Clean well and pack carefully for carrying to the 

place of exhibition. 

For exhibition as table carrots select from any of 
those you have grown and are usually sold as table 
C ARKC) I S : ^^^j-rots, six specimens of medium size for the 
variety, uniform in appearance, in good market condition, and 
of good quality. Clean thoroughly and pack neatly and care- 
fullv. 



I I 2 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

Note. — The Division of Agriculture of the Agricukural 
Department of the University of Minnesota will be glad to assist 
the teachers and others in any way possible in securing material 
and furnishing data needed in executing the work as designed 
in the foregoing pages. 

For further information regarding the working plans, prizes, 
meetings, etc.. address The i'^armers Club, St. Anthony Park, 
Minn. 



APPENDIX 



INDUSTRIAL CONTEST FOR MINNESOTA BOYS AND 

GIRLS. 

Plan of Contest. The plan of the state contest is to encourage 
the taking up of the work in the counties, and to offer additional in- 
ducement to the winners. of prizes, in the county contest, by giving 
them a chance to compete in the state contest. 

The plan of the county contest is very similar to that followed 
in many of the counties before the state contest was started; that is 
the contest is under the supervision of the county superintendent of 
schools. Where the County Farmers' Clubs are organized the mem- 
bers will co-operate with the county superintendent in every possible 
way to help make the contest a success. 

Who May Compete. Any boy or girl in Minnesota, under eigh- 
teen years of age, or any public school student, is eligible to enter 
this contest. All that is necessary to enter the contest is to send 
your name to the county superintendent of your county and state in 
which of the classes described in this bulletin you wish to compete. 

Place and Time of Contests. Where desired the county con- 
tests may be held in connection with the County Fair. Arrange- 
ments should be made to have a special session for the boys and 
girls where the judges of the exhibits may explain the reasons for 
their decision and give a general talk on the subject of the contests. 
Where a county fair is not held other arrangements for the exhibits 
will be made by those in charge in that county. The county con-' 
tests should all be held before the first of December if possible. 

It is planned to hold the state contest at St. Paul, December 
19-20-21. The first day will be given to placing the exhibits and 
visiting the state capitol. The second day will be spent at the School 
of Agriculture where instruction will be given in Agriculture, Horti- 
culture, Domestic Science, and Domestic Art. It is hoped that eacli 
county superintendent will head a delegation of teachers and stu- 
dents from his or her county and that the school boards throughout 
the state will allow teachers who go with pupils to the state meet- 
ing to close their schools on the igth and 20th of December. 

Written Report. Each contestant in any of the classes must 
present with his exhibit a written report describing in full the meth- 
ods by which he grew and selected or made his exhibit. 

Prizes. County. The county superintendent or members of the 
Farmers' Club, or both, will solicit from the business men and other 
citizens of each county reasonable prizes for the various exhibits 
m.ade. This will insure substantial prizes for several! of the best 
exhibits in each class. 



114 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

PREMIUM LIST FOR STATE CONTEST. 

The State Contest is open to the winners of the first, second and 
tliird prizes in each class in the County Contest. In case there is 
nn county contest the contestants are requested to send their sam- 
ples just the same. They will be judged at the state contest and the 
three highest will be allowed to compete for the state prizes. 

PRIZES— WHEAT, CORN, AND OATS. 

The grain and milling interests represented in the Minneapolis 
Chamber of Commerce appropriated $1,000.00. a year for three years 
for prizes on Wheat, Oats and Corn to be distributed as follows:— 

Wheat, $333-33; Oats, %333-33; Corn. ^333-33- 

I'irst premium $50.00 $50.00 $50.00 

Second premium $40.00 $40.00 $40.00 

Third premium $30.00 $30.00 $30.00 

Fourth premium $25.00 $25.00 $25.00 

Fifth premium $20.00 $20.00 $20.00 

Sixth premium $10.00 $10.00 $10.00 

The ne.xt 31 best in each class will receive $5.00 each. 
The 38th in order in each class will receive $3.33. 

This makes a total of 114 cash prizes. 

PRIZES— COOKING CONTEST. 

The Business League of St. Paul appropriated $TOO.Oo cash for 
prizes in the Cooking Contest to be distributed as follows: 

White bread $ 

Graham bread 
Steamed Corn bread 
Sponge Cake 
Chocolate Cake 
Cocoanut Cake 
Fruit Cake 

This makes a total of 

PRIZES— SEWING CONTEST. 

The Business League of St. Paul apprr)priatcd $100.00 cash for 
prizes in the Sewing Contest to be distributed as follows. 
Plain Work Apron $5.00 $3.00 $2.00 Next 10 — $1.00 each 

Fancy Apron 5.00 3.00 2.00 Next 10 — i.oo each 

Over Hand Patch 5.00 3.00 2.00 Next 10 — i.oo each 

Stockinet Darning 5.00 3.00 2,00 Next 10— i.oo each 

Dressed Doll 5.00 3.00 2.00 Next 10 — i.oo each 

This makes a total of 65 casli i)rizcs. 

PRIZES— VEGETABLE CONTEST. 

Northrop King & Co., Seedsmen, of Minneapolis have contrib- 
uted $50.00 cash for prizes in the vegetable contest. Their illus- 
trated catalogue of new & valuable varieties of seeds, plants, etc., 
will be mailed free on application. Much information as to niethods 
of culture of the various garden and field crops is contained in their 
catalog. 

L. L. May & Co., Seedsmen, of St. Paul donated $50.00 in cash 
for prizes in the vegetable contest. Their cataloo' embracing thou- 
sands of illustrations of new varieties of Seeds. Plants. Trees, etc., 
will l)e readv for distribution Jan. 1st. 1008. It contains also much 



1st 




2nd 


3rd 








55.00 




$3.00 


$2.00 


Next 


12 — $1.00 


each 


3.00 




2.00 




Next 


8 — I.oo 


each 


3.00 




2.00 




Next 


8 — I.oo 


each 


3.00 




2.00 




Next 


8 — I.oo 


each 


3.00 




2.00 




Next 


8 — I.oo 


each 


3.00 




2.00 




Next 


8 — I.oo 


each 


3.00 




2.00 




Next 


8 — I.oo 


each 


75 


C 


ash prizes 











Potatoes (Early) 


$5.00 


$3.00 


$2.00 


Potatoes (Late) 


5.00 


3.00 


2.00 


Onions (Yellow) 


3.00 


2.00 




Onions (Red) 


3-00 


2.00 




Carrots (Table) 


3.0Q 


2.00 




Carrots (Stock) 


3.00 


2.00 





RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I I 5 

information as to cultivation, preparation of soil, etc., which will be 
of value to amateurs. It is mailed free on application. 

The hundred dollars thus appropriated will be distributed as 
follows: 

Next 10 — $1.00 each 

Next 10 — 1. 00 each 

Next 10 — 1. 00 each 

Next ID — 1. 00 each 

Next 10 — 1. 00 each 

Next 10 — 1. 00 each 

PRIZES.— APPLE CONTEST. 

The Prizes for apples are offered by the Minnesota State Horti- 
cultural Society. Any one may become a member by sending $1.00 
to the secretary, A. W. Latham 207 Kasota Bldg., Minneapolis. A 
list of hardy fruits will be sent free on application. The society 
of¥ers $100.00 in prizes for the best exhibits of apples as follows: 
Pattens Greening , $3.00 $2.00 $1.00 

Wealthy 300 2.00 i.oo 

Northwestern Greening 300 2.00 i.oo 

Seedling apples ist— $6; 2d— $5; 3rd— $4; 4th— $3; 5th— $2; & 6th— $1. 
Collection Apples (Named varieties) 

I St, — $5; 2nd — $3; Next 8, — $2.00 each. 
Crabs ist ten best $1.00 each. 

This makes 62 Cash prizes. 

BULLETIN AND BOOK LIST. 

The following is a list of bulletins and books which pursue the 
subjects discussed in this bulletin more in detail. The bulletins men- 
tioned are free to those who ask for them. 

The Farmers' Bulletins may be obtained by writing to the Sec- 
retary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and stating the number 
and title of those wanted. 

Farmers Bulletin List. 
No. 34, Meats — Composition and Cooking. 
No. 35, Potato Culture. 
No. 39, Onion Culture. 

No. 54, Some Common Birds and Their Relation to Agriculture. 
No. 85, Fish as food. 

No. 91, Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. 
No. Ill, The Farmer's Interest in Good Roads. 
No. 112, Bread and Principles in Bread Making. 
No. 113, The Apple and How to Grow It. 
No. 134, Tree Planting on Rural School grounds. 
No. 145, Carbon-bisulphid as an Insecticide. 
No. 146, Insecticides and Fungicides. 
No. 148, Celery culture. 
No. 154, The Home Fruit Garden. 
No. 156, The Home Vineyard. 
No. 157, Propagation of Plants. 
No. 161, Suggestions to Fruit Growers. 
No. 171, Control of The Coddling Moth. 
No. 176. Cranberry Culture. 
No. 181, Pruning. 
No. 182, Poultrv as Food. 



Il6 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 

No. 183, Meat on The Farm. 

No. 19s, Annual Flowering Plants. 

No. 198, Strawberries. 

No. 199, Corn Growing. 

No. 203, Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies. 

No. 213, Raspberries. 

No. 218, The School Garden. 

No. 220, Tomatoes. 

No. 229, The Production of Good Seed Corn. 

No. 247, The Control of the Coddling Moth and Apple Scab. 

No. 248, The Lawn. 

No. 2*50, The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat and Loose 

Smut of Oats. 
No. 253, The Germination of Seed Corn. 
No. 254, Cucumbers. 

No. 255, The Home Vegetable Garden. 
No. 256, Preparation of Vegetables for Table Use. 
No. loi, Studies in Bread and Bread Making. Price loc. 

Bureau of Entomology Circulars. 
No. 60, The Imported Cabbage Worm. 
No. 62, The Cabbage Worm. 

The following Minnesota bulletins may be obtained free of 
charge by writing to the Minnesota Experiment Station, St. An- 
thony Park, and giving number of bulletin desired. 
No. 24, Seed Grain (Press Bui.) 
No. 38, Garden & Tillage Implements. 
No. 74, Human Food Investigations. 
No. 83, Apples and Apple Growing. 
No. 87, Potatoes. 

No. 96, Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous Plants. 
No. 15, Corn Breeding (Press Bui.) 
No. 95, Common Weeds and Their Eradication. 

Book List. — 
Vegetable gardening by Prof. S. B. Green. $1.00 

Amateur Fruit Growing by. Prof. S. B. Green. .50 

Model Sevv'ing and Garment making by Mrs. Margaret J. Blair, i.oo 
Household Science by Juinata L. Shepperd. i 75 

Cereals in America by Prof. Thomas F. Hunt. 1.75 

The Book of Corn, by Specialists. 1.50 

Soils & Crops of the Farm by Morrow & Hunt. ' i.oo 




An up to date district scliool. Tliis Srlaool building 
to accomniodatp pupils on tlie Consolidated plan. 



is being enlarged 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



0DD57H4a227 



